The 1960s changed Irish culture, often painfully. In literary terms, the government censorship of the preceding 30 years began to be challenged in a more sustained fashion. In 1960 Edna O’Brien published The Country Girls, the first novel in a trilogy that helped open up discussion of the role of women and sex in Irish society and of Roman Catholicism’s oppressive force upon women. The novel was banned, and O’Brien left Ireland shortly thereafter. Yet her work continued to focus on modern Irish society, particularly the experience of Irish women. Her powerful novel Down by the River (1996) took on some of Ireland’s most explosive issues, including the country’s restrictive abortion policies. The novel was inspired by the notorious “Miss X” case of the early 1990s, in which a teenage girl who had been impregnated through rape by a family member and was seeking the right to leave Ireland to obtain an abortion in England became the center of a national firestorm of protests. John McGahern too had his early work banned, but he continued to produce novels that subtly probed the changes rapidly transforming Ireland. Amongst Women (1990) is his most critically acclaimed and moving novel.

In a number of novels published in the late 1980s and ’90s, it seemed that Irish writers for the first time were finally able to explore the political and cultural transformations their country had undergone in the previous 60 years. Among these, the work of Patrick McCabe, in particular The Butcher Boy (1992) and The Dead School (1995), stands out. So too does that of John Banville, among Ireland’s preeminent novelists at the end of the 20th century. His extraordinary novel Birchwood (1973) is a postmodern, post-Joycean revisitation of the Big House novel, a genre that has endured throughout modern Irish fiction.

But the main cultural and political crisis in Ireland in the 1960s and beyond was the explosion of the “Troubles,” a term used to describe the sectarian violence between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland. This violence was accompanied by a necessarily urgent literary reaction—some 800 Troubles-related novels, for instance, had been published by the early 21st century—and there began in Northern Ireland an extraordinary poetic flowering. The American-born John Montague initiated this process with the long poem The Rough Field (1972), a milestone in contemporary Irish poetry, but his reputation was soon eclipsed by the arrival of Seamus Heaney, who in 1995 became Ireland’s fourth winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature. Heaney’s lyrical, muscular, aural poetry, like Montague’s, delved into the Irish past and into what Heaney called the “word-hoard” of the Irish landscape. His frequent use of traditional forms (as in his sonnet sequences) produced a body of work as accessible and beautiful as it is demanding. One of Heaney’s most moving poems to address the Troubles was “Punishment,” which described the exhumed and mummified body of a woman executed for adultery many centuries ago. Heaney draws a connection between the tribal ritual punishments of much earlier Irish societies and the contemporary punishments—public tarring and feathering—that were inflicted on women who had become romantically involved with men of the opposite religion at the height of the Troubles. The poem describes his sympathies for female victims of the past and present but makes clear his—and other bystanders’—complicity in the control of women’s bodies through silence and shame.

The Troubles yielded other literary and cultural engagements that shaped the ways in which Irish literature as a whole is now understood. The Field Day Theatre Company, founded in 1980 in Londonderry (Derry) by playwright Brian Friel and actor Stephen Rea, instigated a new movement both in drama and in cultural politics that sought to undo some of the damage done by partition to modern Irish self-perception and self-representation. Friel, already established as Ireland’s leading playwright, wrote and in 1980 produced Field Day’s landmark play Translations; it is set in mid-19th-century Donegal, where British Ordnance Survey engineers are remapping and translating the Irish landscape into English. The play’s performance was a key moment in the transformation of Irish writing into a self-consciously postcolonial national literature.

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Given its comparatively smaller size and population and its catastrophic history, Ireland occupies an unexpectedly elevated position in European literature. Despite the country’s apparently endless preoccupation with its past, its literary present and future at the close of the 20th century appeared vibrant and promising. Prominent poets who emerged during this time included Paul Muldoon, Medbh McGuckian, Derek Mahon, Michael Longley, Eavan Boland, Paula Meehan, and Thomas Kinsella. McCabe, Banville, Jennifer Johnston, William Trevor, Roddy Doyle, Colm Tóibín, Neil Jordan, and Seamus Deane wrote fiction, and Friel, Frank McGuinness, Tom Murphy, Martin McDonagh, and Marina Carr wrote for the theater. Collectively, these writers addressed new themes in literature and profound societal change in Ireland. Doyle wrote comic novels that centered on the striving Dublin working class—notably, his Barrytown series, which begins with the hilariously profane The Commitments (1987)—as well as works that confronted issues such as domestic violence and alcoholism. Tóibín produced best sellers that explored the changes in Irish family life and gender dynamics, such as The Blackwater Lightship (1999), which centers on three generations of women caregiving for a male family member who is dying of AIDS. Yet his best-known work, Brooklyn (2009), looked back to the 1950s to tell a haunting story of the mid-century wave of Irish emigration to the United States. London-born McDonagh took satire and “stage Irishness” to new levels of absurdity with his extremely violent, yet also extremely funny, cycles of plays set in Connemara and the Aran Islands, featuring characters engaged in futile dreams, bitter family feuds, and half-baked political plots.