Scandinavia and Finland
Neoclassical taste was introduced into Denmark and Sweden between 1750 and 1790 by French designers such as Louis Le Lorrain, Nicolas-Henri Jardin, and Louis-Jean Desprez. In Denmark, Jardin’s pupil Caspar Frederik Harsdorff built the austere royal mortuary chapel of Frederick V in Roskilde Cathedral (1774–79), while in Sweden Desprez was responsible for the Botanical Institute in Uppsala (1791–1807), with a Greek Doric portico. The Danish architect Christian Frederik Hansen, a pupil of Harsdorff, turned the medieval and Baroque city of Copenhagen into a Neoclassical capital. He built the town hall, court house, and prison (1803–16) and the church of Our Lady (1810–29), with its Boullée-inspired interior. Schinkel’s example in Berlin was followed by Hansen’s pupil Heinrich Grosch, who provided Christiania (Oslo), the new capital of Norway, with a series of Greek Revival public buildings. Perhaps the finest example of this Classical urban planning is in Helsinki, established as capital of Finland in 1812. Beginning in 1818, Johan Ehrenström and Carl Engel created a monumental group of the Lutheran Cathedral flanked by the Senate, University, and University Library.
Poland
Stanisław II August Poniatowski, king of Poland from 1764 to 1795, brought the Louis XVI style of contemporary France to the Royal Castle in Warsaw in a series of interiors designed by Dominik Merlini and Jan Chrystian Kamsetzer in 1776–85. Merlini also designed the Łazienki Palace at Ujazdów near Warsaw (1775–93) for the king, while Szymon Bogumił Zug brought Neoclassicism to ecclesiastical architecture in his Lutheran Church, Warsaw (1777–81), modeled on the Pantheon. Zug also designed Arkadia (1777–98), one of the many picturesque gardens in Poland. Laid out on the Radziwiłł family estate of Nieborow, the garden contains numerous Romantic buildings. After 1815, Warsaw was rebuilt as a model Neoclassical city with major public buildings by Merlini’s pupil Jakub Kubicki and the Italian architect Antonio Corazzi.
Russia
The leading role played by Russia in the production of early Neoclassical architecture was almost entirely due to Catherine II. Under her aegis St. Petersburg was transformed into an unparalleled museum of Neoclassical buildings as advanced as contemporary French and English work. As in other countries, the new taste for antique simplicity represented a reaction against the excesses of the Rococo, which in Russia had its apotheosis in the work of Bartolomeo Francesco Rastrelli.
Two foreign architects played important roles: a Scotsman, Charles Cameron, whose most extensive work was at Tsarskoye Selo in the style invented by Robert Adam and who was responsible for introducing the first correct Greek Doric column and entablature in Russia in the circular Temple of Friendship at Pavlovsk (1780); and an Italian, Giacomo Antonio Domenico Quarenghi, who arrived in Russia in 1780 and built for Catherine the Palladian English Palace at Peterhof (1781–89).
The two leading Russian architects were Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov and Ivan Yegorovich Starov, both of whom studied in Paris under de Wailly in the 1760s, bringing back to Russia the most-advanced Neoclassical ideas. Bazhenov designed the new Arsenal in St. Petersburg (1765) and prepared unexecuted designs for the Kamenni Ostrov Palace (1765–75) and for a new Kremlin. Starov designed a country house for Prince Gagarin at Nikolskoye (1774–76), the new cathedral of the Trinity, St. Petersburg (1776), and the influential prototype of Russian country houses, the Tauride Palace (1783–88), for Grigory Potemkin, Catherine’s lover. The Tauride Palace consisted of a central-domed and porticoed central block connected by narrow galleries to large wings.
Under Catherine’s grandson, Alexander I (reigned 1801–25), the Russian version of the Empire style flourished. The great monument of this later period was the St. Petersburg Bourse (1804–16) by Thomas de Thomon, a vast peripteral (surrounded by a row of columns) edifice. Andrey Nikiforovich Voronikhin, also a pupil of de Wailly, was architect of the Kazan Cathedral, St. Petersburg (1801–11), and Andreyan Dmitriyevich Zakharov built the Admiralty (1806–15) in the same city.
United States
Neoclassical architecture thrived in the United States throughout the 19th century, and examples of it exist in nearly every major city. The analogy with imperial Rome and later (after the War of Greek Independence, 1821–32, in particular) with the grandeur and political ideals of Periclean Athens strengthened the case for the adoption of Roman and Greek architectural models in the United States. In 1785 Thomas Jefferson planned the Virginia State Capitol with the Frenchman Charles-Louis Clérisseau, taking as his model the ancient Roman Maison-Carrée at Nîmes. It was to be the first public building in the modern world directly based on an antique temple. Jefferson’s own house, Monticello, in Virginia, featured a central-domed space and was indebted to ancient Roman villas as well as to Palladianism and to modern French and English domestic design. If Monticello echoed the private agrarian retreat of Classical statesmen, as described in the writings of Cicero and the younger Pliny, the University of Virginia at Charlottesville (1817–26) was an example of Jefferson’s effort to educate the public of the new United States. He conceived the campus as an academic village of extraordinary charm and novelty in which a central Pantheon-like rotunda, containing a library, stands at the head of a grassy open space flanked by two lines of small templelike pavilions, which are linked by colonnades.
In Boston, the Massachusetts State House, designed 1787–88 and built 1795–98 by Charles Bulfinch, derived from English Neoclassical models. By far the most gifted architect working in the United States in these years was Benjamin Latrobe. Latrobe was born in England, where he was trained by the innovative architect Samuel Pepys Cockerell. He evidently became familiar with the radical work of Dance, Soane, and Ledoux and of engineers such as John Smeaton. In 1796 he went to the United States, where he worked as the first fully professional architect and eventually became known as the father of the American architectural profession. A characteristic early building is his Bank of Pennsylvania (1798–1800), in Philadelphia, which was then the largest American city and was, indeed, the United States capital from 1790 to 1800. The bank is a novel reinterpretation of ancient temple architecture, with a Greek Ionic portico at each end but no Classical order on its long side walls. It was also fireproof, being the first American building to be vaulted in masonry throughout. The shallow top-lit saucer dome in the central banking hall recalls the work of Soane, as does Latrobe’s Roman Catholic cathedral at Baltimore (1805–18). Drawing on the Pantheon and on Soufflot’s Sainte-Geneviève, the cathedral contains a dome resting on segmental arches perhaps inspired by Soane’s interiors at the Bank of England. Latrobe’s most poetic and inventive work is a series of interiors at the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C., which he executed in his capacity as surveyor of public works, a position to which Jefferson appointed him in 1803. The Supreme Court Chamber (1815–17), with its strange lobed vault resting on stunted Doric columns, suggests a search for a new architecture, as do the capitals of corn (maize) and tobacco leaves that he invented for use in other parts of the building. Jefferson responded warmly to Latrobe’s attempt to symbolize in architecture the values of the newly founded republic.
For the architecture of Latin America, see Latin American architecture.
Sandra Millikin David John WatkinGothic Revival, c. 1730–c. 1930
Origins and development
The architectural movement most commonly associated with Romanticism is the Gothic Revival, a term first used in England in the mid-19th century to describe buildings being erected in the style of the Middle Ages and later expanded to embrace the entire Neo-Gothic movement. The date of its beginning is not easy to pinpoint, for, even when there was no particular liking for Gothic, conservatism and local building practices had conditioned its use as the style for churches and collegiate buildings. In its earliest phase, therefore, Gothic Revival is not easily distinguished from Gothic survival.
The first clearly self-conscious imitation of Gothic architecture for reasons of nostalgia appeared in England in the early 18th century. Buildings erected at that time in the Gothic manner were for the most part frivolous and decorative garden ornaments, actually more Rococo than Gothic in spirit. But, with the rebuilding beginning in 1747 of the country house Strawberry Hill by the English writer Horace Walpole, a new and significant aspect of the revived style was given convincing form, and, by the beginning of the 19th century, picturesque planning and grouping provided the basis for experimentation in architecture. Gothic was especially suited to this aim. Scores of houses with battlements and turrets in the style of a castle were built in England during the last years of the 18th century.
With developing archaeological interest, a new and more earnest turn was given to the movement—a turn that coincided with the religious revivals of the early 19th century and that manifested itself in a spate of church building in the Gothic style. Only toward the middle of the century were the seriousness and moral purpose that underlay this movement formulated as a doctrine and presented to architects as a challenge to the intellect. Augustus Charles Pugin, in England, was the first to codify the principles of the Gothic Revival. Far more persuasive and influential exponents, however, were Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc in France and John Ruskin in England, who gave to the movement a moral and intellectual purpose. The second half of the 19th century saw the active and highly productive period of the Gothic Revival. By then, the mere imitation of Gothic forms and details was its least important aspect; architects were intent on creating original works based on the principles underlying Gothic architecture and deeply infused with its spirit.
Another contribution that the Gothic Revival made to architecture was the encouragement of freedom and honesty of structural arrangement. Structural elements could be provided as and where they were needed. There was no need for dissimulation. French architects, in particular Viollet-le-Duc, who restored a range of buildings from the Sainte-Chapelle and Notre-Dame in Paris to the whole town of Carcassonne, were the first to appreciate the applicability of the Gothic skeleton structure, with its light infilling, to a modern age; the analogy was not lost on subsequent architects at a time when the steel frame was emerging as an important element of structural engineering. (Functionalism and structural honesty as ideals in the modern movement were a legacy of the Gothic Revival.)
Not surprisingly, the Gothic Revival was felt with most force in those countries in which Gothic architecture itself was most in evidence—England, France, and Germany. Each conceived it as a national style, and each gave to it a strong and characteristic twist of its own.
National and regional variations
Great Britain
From the 17th to the 19th century
A Gothic Revival was in a sense initiated early in England during the late 16th century under the influence of Elizabethan and Jacobean notions of chivalry and again between 1620 and 1630 under the impetus of William Laud’s Anglicanism; but it is in the Gothic experimentalism of the late 17th century, particularly that of Sir Christopher Wren’s circle, in which seeds of a Gothic Revival can be discerned. Although buildings erected at these times imitated Gothic forms, none of them was revivalist in spirit. The Gothic Revival was largely conditioned by literary theory and practice. Although it had antecedents, the so-called “revolution of taste” in the mid-18th century was most clearly marked by publication of Richard Hurd’s Letters on Chivalry and Romance (1762) and Thomas Percy’s Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765). Thomas Gray, especially in his poems of the 1750s and, later, in his letters, was the first major poet to seek inspiration in a “Gothic” past—not only medieval but Celtic and Icelandic. Thomas Warton, poet and critic, acquired his interest in the Middle Ages from architecture and, in his work on medieval English cathedrals and churches, connected the literary aspect of the Gothic Revival with the work that was begun by a group of antiquaries in the late 17th century and that was continued into the 18th.
The transition from a survival to a revival phase of Gothic architecture took place almost imperceptibly. Curiously enough, it was Sir John Vanbrugh, England’s great exponent of the Baroque spirit, who made the first successful attempt to evoke sensations of the medieval past. In 1717 he built a house for himself at Greenwich, near London, that was intended to conjure up a “castle air.” It is a simple, robust, brick building that relies for its effect on slender proportion rather than detail. But it is an isolated work of its kind.
Only toward the end of the 18th century did picturesque take on a precise meaning, affecting the planning and the forms of English architecture. However, from the late 17th century onward, isolated gardens and estates were laid out to take advantage of the irregularity of landscape, resulting in compositions that approximated those in the paintings of 17th- and 18th-century artists such as Claude Lorrain, Salvator Rosa, and Gaspard Poussin—hence, the denomination of the style as “picturesque.” It was William Kent, in response to the literary ideal of “naturalness” of such writers as Sir William Temple, Joseph Addison, and Alexander Pope, who was first acclaimed for fashioning the picturesque landscape that was to be made famous in the 18th century by Lancelot (“Capability”) Brown and who introduced occasional buildings into it, often in a Gothic style, to serve as a focus of interest. There were, however, other precursors, notably Vanbrugh and Charles Bridgeman.
Kent first used the fanciful Rococo “Gothick” that was to become characteristic of the 18th century in 1732, on a gateway in the Clock Tower at Hampton Court. He also reconstructed the Tudor buildings of Esher Lodge between 1729 and 1733, introducing ogee arches and quatrefoil openings. These he used again in the late 1730s in the Temple of the Mill at Rousham, Oxfordshire, where he laid out one of the first irregular gardens. The ornamental character of the Gothic Revival was thus established from the start, and it was popularized as such within a few years by Batty Langley, author of Gothic Architecture Improved by Rules and Proportions (1742). Pretensions to archaeological accuracy appear in two churches built in 1753 by Henry Keene—that at Shobdon, Herefordshire, and a charming, though now derelict, octagonal church at Hartwell, Buckinghamshire. An ardent admirer of Gothic, Keene had begun Gothicizing Arbury Hall, Warwickshire, as early as 1748. It was to the amateurs Sanderson Miller and Horace Walpole, however, that the credit for a full-scale domestic Gothic Revival was due.
Miller, a Warwickshire squire, began about 1744 by inserting pointed arches in the south front of his Tudor house at Radway, Warwickshire. Later, he put up a garden ornament in the form of a mock Gothic castle at nearby Edgehill, the idea of which became fashionable and made a reputation for him as a designer of Gothic extravaganzas. His most significant work was Lacock Abbey, Wiltshire, the symmetrical, flattened facade of which is thinly decorated with Gothic motifs. Walpole’s Gothic, though apparently as lighthearted, was more serious in intent. When in 1747 he decided to rebuild his house, Strawberry Hill, Twickenham, Middlesex, he proposed to reflect faithfully in its architecture his tastes for topography, history, and heraldry. He formed a “committee on taste” to advise him on the design. Among the members were the amateur archaeologists Richard Bentley and John Chute, both of whom provided designs. The architect responsible for the execution of most of the work was William Robinson. During the early phase of building, alterations and interior decorations were made in a pretty, decorative style, with a freedom unhampered by any serious archaeological study. Nor was there any real feeling for medieval composition in the massing of the elements. But in 1761, when a vast circular tower was added to the southwest corner of the house, Walpole gave evidence of a deliberate attempt to achieve an asymmetrical, picturesque composition. The west of the house was more freely grouped. Finally, in 1776, James Essex, probably the most earnest Gothicist of the period, inserted the Beauclerc Tower between the west end and the round tower, making the whole the first and most determined example of a large-scale picturesque composition.
The fortuitous appearance and the deliberate irregularity of Strawberry Hill were exploited in many late 18th-century buildings. The most extravagant and sensational of all Gothic Revival buildings was Fonthill Abbey (1796–1806), Wiltshire, designed by James Wyatt primarily as a landscape feature for the arch-Romantic William Beckford. The great central tower collapsed in 1807, and most of the building has today disappeared; but, in John Rutter’s Delineations of Fonthill (1823), it is still possible to perceive something of the grotesquely spectacular quality that made this building, for a short time, notorious.
Although many Classically inspired architects, including Sir William Chambers and Robert Adam, applied Gothic details to the exterior of their country houses (and Adam was even employed at Strawberry Hill), they displayed no great interest in the style and always retained strict symmetry of composition. George Dance used it more thoughtfully and originally in his occasional Gothic buildings—e.g., the facade of the Guildhall (1789), London; Cole Orton Hall (1804–08), Leicestershire; Ashburnham Place (1813–17), Sussex; and the churches of St. Bartholomew-the-Less (1789), London, and Micheldever (1808), Hampshire.
Walpole’s innovation assumed real significance only toward the end of the century, after the theory of the picturesque was evolved and publicized by Richard Payne Knight and Uvedale Price. Already Knight had given architectural form to his ideas of rugged, irregular, and apparently “natural” composition in Downton Castle, Herefordshire, near Ludlow (1774–78). This was the first irregularly planned castellated (castle-style) building with a Classical interior. It inspired a vast range of such buildings. John Nash is the best known and most proficient exponent of the style. Starting with his own house, East Cowes Castle, on the Isle of Wight, in about 1798, he exploited the deliberate irregularity of plan and silhouette afforded by the castellated style; from Caerhayes (1808), Cornwall, in the south, to Ravensworth Castle (1808), Durham, in the north, Nash dotted England (and also Ireland) with picturesque castles, houses, and ornamental cottages all of vaguely Gothic or Italianate inspiration.
Sir John Soane attempted the Gothic style on at least three occasions—at Port Eliot (1804–06), Cornwall, at Ramsey Abbey (1804–06), Huntingdonshire, and for the library at Stowe (1805–07), Buckinghamshire—but, like his master Dance, strongly influenced by the French Neoclassical theorists Abbé de Cordemoy and Marc-Antoine Laugier, he attempted to distill the effects of Gothic rather than to imitate the style. His suspended arches and his clustered ribs rising sheer from the floor and continuing around the vault are, ultimately, of Gothic inspiration.
