In the early 17th century, Jacques Callot rose to prominence in French art: gifted as a draftsman above all, he recorded with the pen his clever inventions and great picture stories, primarily in bold abbreviations.

The importance of drawing for an artist’s growth and the widening of his horizon is attested also by the work of Peter Paul Rubens, whose studies and sketches make up an integral part of his creative achievement. In order to disseminate his pictorial themes and concept of form, he maintained his own school for draftspeople and engravers. Among the circle of Flemings around him, Jacob Jordaens and Sir Anthony Van Dyck are notable as draftsmen with a style of their own.

Hercules Seghers was among the most fascinating artists of the 17th century, a creator of drawn and etched landscapes that he continued to rework while experimenting with printing processes. From the point of view of technique and form, he was important for the greatest artist of Holland, Rembrandt. Seghers combined great inventiveness, especially in his interpretations of Old Testament motifs, and broad mastery of all the techniques of drawing. In his studio, too, drawing was emphasized as a teaching aid and a means of formal experimentation.

Most Dutch painters of the 17th century, such as the van de Velde family, Brouwer, van Ostade, Pieter Saenredam, and Paulus Potter, were also industrious draftsmen who recorded their special thematic concerns in drawings that were largely completed. Beyond serving as preparation for paintings, these were regarded as autonomous works representing the final stage of the creative process.

In 17th-century Italy, drawing by way of artistic practice and experimentation became established in the academies, especially in Bologna. More significant, however, was the continuing development of landscape drawing, as initiated by the brothers Agostino and Annibale Carracci and articulated further by Domenichino and Salvator Rosa. The French artist Claude Lorrain so developed the landscape drawing of the Roman countryside that it became almost a genre of its own; in his works, which were often intended for sale, nature study and an idealized pictorial concept are uniquely merged. In detailed studies directly before the object, he achieved a timeless validity. Like Lorrain, Nicolas Poussin also drew under the open sky. Using various techniques, he combined realistic experiences and humanistic concepts in idealizing compositions the figures and scenes of which are harmoniously integrated into a spacious landscape. This open-air painting and drawing was practiced also by some other artists who spent a considerable time in Rome—the Dutch artists Jan Asselijn, Claes Berchem, Karel Dujardin, and Adam Pijnacker, for example. For most southern European artists of the 17th century, however, drawing was a mere stage in the creation of a painting.

Antoine Watteau, too, did drawings to “keep his hand in” for his painting, although he did so with an independence that led him far beyond the immediate occasion. Most figures in the paintings from various periods of his career were based on earlier drawings. In the grand scale of his form and the attention paid to pictorial elements, he carried on in the manner of Rubens, combining it with the light esprit of the 18th century. The leading position of French art in the first half of that century was confirmed by the achievements of Franƈois Boucher, Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Hubert Robert, and Gabriel de Saint-Aubin, whose drawings include figure studies, genre-like works, and landscapes.

In contrast to the French draftspeople who brought about a flowering of the à trois crayons method on tinted paper, some artists created similar landscapes with pen and brush but with greater objective abbreviation. Mention must here be made of Venice, with the Giovanni Battista Tiepolo family, whose expansively conceived pen drawings, washed with a broad brush, call forth the kind of luminaristic effect that Francesco Guardi also used for landscape studies and imaginary scenes. These had been preceded by Canaletto’s views of Venice, composed more severely as far as tectonic (constructional) detail is concerned but nonetheless the first examples of this form of the landscape capriccio, or fantasy. The architect Giovanni Battista Piranesi made his name primarily as a draftsman who recorded views of Rome; above all, in his drawings of architecture and eerie vaults (Carceri), he left behind a body of work of great intellectual and formal forcefulness.

The Spanish painter Francisco de Goya, at the very end of the 18th and in the beginning of the 19th century, was in advance of his time in the way in which he handled his themes. Forming an odd contrast to the court-painter’s pictures, his brush-and-sanguine drawings are rather more closely tied to his cycles of etchings. He combined the luminaristic effects of Tiepolo’s drawings with the dramatic impact of a Rembrandt chiaroscuro.

Also at the turn of the 19th century is an artist whose main work was that of a draftsman: the English caricaturist and social satirist Thomas Rowlandson, who produced colourful and distinctive watercolours. The late 18th and, even more, the early 19th century produced a drawing style that, in accordance with both the Neoclassical and the Romantic ideal, emphasized once more the linear element. In Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, idealistic Neoclassicism found an exemplary expression of strict linearity, and the pencil drawing became a downright classical form. The Nazarenes and Romantics in Rome and the Alpine region (Joseph Anton Koch, the brothers Friedrich and Ferdinand Olivier, and Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld) as well as those in north Germany (Philipp Otto Runge and Caspar David Friedrich) were more lyrical but equally rigorous in the use of the hardpoint; after a long time, they were the first northern artists to have made a significant contribution to the history of drawing. Among 19th-century artists, the emphasis on delineation was characteristic also of Moritz von Schwind in Germany and John Millais in England. (In the Neoclassical phase of the 20th century it was renewed, in a more open and “handwriting” fashion, by Thomas Eakins in the United States as well as by Picasso, Matisse, and Amedeo Modigliani in France.) The drawings of Eugène Delacroix, while preserving plastic qualities, show a broader stroke and are thus more pictorial. Honoré Daumier, active in all mediums primarily as a draftsman, utilized pictorial chiaroscuro effects in forcible statements of social criticism.

France continued to be a leading centre of the art of drawing, a form that was given a very personal note in each case in the works of Edgar Degas, Mary Cassatt, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Vincent van Gogh, and Paul Cézanne. The line—the common point of departure for all of the above-mentioned artists—did not disappear until Georges Seurat’s plane shading, done in the Pointillist manner.

Modern

Except for a few stylistic currents such as Tachism (paintings consisting of irregular blobs of colour), drawing is represented in the work of practically all 20th-century artists; it is as international as modern art itself. As the other arts have become nonrepresentational, thus attaining autonomy and formal independence in relation to external reality, drawing is more than ever considered an autonomous work of art, independent of the other arts. Some schools and individual artists as well have concentrated on drawing and in very individualistic ways. The German Expressionists, for instance, developed especially emphatic forms of drawing with powerful delineation and forcible and hyperbolic formal description; notable examples are the works of Ernst Barlach, Käthe Kollwitz, Alfred Kubin, Ernest Ludwig Kirchner, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, Max Beckmann, and George Grosz. In the artists’ group Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider), Wassily Kandinsky was foremost in laying the groundwork for a new evaluation of the nonrepresentational line. Paul Klee’s lyrically sensitive drawings, carried out in a pen technique of unheard-of sublimity, represent a high point of modern drawing. In France, drawing plays a major role, especially in the work of the painters of the École de Paris (School of Paris), such as Pierre Soulages and Hans Hartung, who consider the line, the framework of lines, and the network of lines, as primary manifestations of form. Wols (Alfred Otto Wolfgang Schulze) and also the English artist Graham Sutherland may actually be called spiritual draftsmen who put their faith in the magic of the line. Finally, drawing occupies a considerable place in the work (including all its variants of style and form) of Pablo Picasso, who knew how to make use of its manifold technical possibilities. One is surely justified in calling him one of the greatest draftspersons of the 20th century and one of the greatest in the history of drawing.