flamenco

flamenco, form of song, dance, and instrumental (mostly guitar) music commonly associated with the Andalusian Roma (Gypsies) of southern Spain. (There, the Roma people are called Gitanos.) The roots of flamenco, though somewhat mysterious, seem to lie in the Roma migration from Rajasthan (in northwest India) to Spain between the 9th and 14th centuries. These migrants brought with them musical instruments, such as tambourines, bells, and wooden castanets, and an extensive repertoire of songs and dances. In Spain they encountered the rich cultures of the Sephardic Jews and the Moors. Their centuries-long cultural intermingling produced the unique art form known as flamenco.

The cante, or song

The essence of flamenco is cante, or song. Flamenco songs fall into three categories: cante jondo (“profound song,” or “deep song”), cante intermedio (“intermediate song,” also called cante flamenco), and cante chico (“light song”). The cante jondo, whose structure usually is based on a complex 12-beat rhythm, is thought to be the oldest form. It is characterized by profound emotion and deals with themes of death, anguish, despair, or religious doubt. The cante intermedio is a hybrid form that incorporates elements of Spanish music styles, especially the fandango. The cante chico, which is generally simpler in rhythm than the other two forms, also requires considerable technical skill but much less emotional investment, dealing as it usually does with humour and subjects of love, the countryside, and gaiety. Each song style is distinguished by a characteristic rhythm and chord structure; yet several types of cante may share the same rhythm but individualize accentuation, subtleties, and emotional content.

The ancestry of many types of song is traceable. Thus, the serious soleares, a descendant of the much older cañas, gave rise to the light alegrías, from which developed other light-song types, such as the bulerías. The alboreás is traditionally sung only at weddings and is considered unlucky on other occasions. Other forms, such as the fandangos grandes, were adopted from Spanish folk song and dance, the fandangos becoming more serious in character than the original and begetting a series of descendants that includes the malagueñas and the Arab-influenced cartageneras. Latin American influence appears in later genres such as the rumbas gitanas and the colombianas. Most deeply associated with Gitano flamenco tradition are the cantes grandes, such as the siguiriyas gitanas; the saetas, adopted from Spanish religious processions; and the martinetes, an early song type created in the environment of the forge, in which the beat of the hammer against the anvil reflects the pain and sense of persecution felt by the perpetual outsider.

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The baile, or dance

After the mid-19th century, flamenco song was usually accompanied by guitar music and a palo seco (Spanish: “dry stick,” a stick that was beat on the floor to keep time) and a dancer performing a series of choreographed dance steps and improvised styles. Baile, or dance, has been the dominant element of flamenco since that time, though it is never performed without accompaniment.

As an accompanist to the dancer (bailaor [male], bailaora [female]), the singer (cantaor) relates the legends and stories of daily life that reflect the experiences of an outcast subculture within predominately white, Christian Spain. The dancer is the protagonist of the singer’s narrative and its interpreter. The baile is a sensuous display of fluid motion, stylized and yet highly personal, involving movement of the arms (braceo) and upper torso, hand and finger movement (florea), footwork (zapateado), and heelwork (taconeo), which are often displayed in long solo passages (solea). Male dancers usually perform intricate footwork, whereas female dancers, traditionally wearing elaborately ruffled dresses, emphasize the hands and upper torso. The guitarist (tocoar) keeps the rhythm (compás) necessary to the dancer’s individual rhythmic cadences, accompanying (and, when the performance space is large, even following) the dancer.

A deeply musical dancer, after a 15- or 20-minute sequence, is said to fall into a duende, an intensely focused, trancelike state of transcendent emotion that Federico García Lorca in 1933 described as los sonidos negros (“the dark sounds”) invading the performer’s body. This extraordinary state is enhanced by rhythmic hand clapping and encouraging interjections (jaleo) from the audience and fellow performers. Gitano flamenco performers regard the cante jondo as a form of prayer, and thus, in duende, the dancer communicates with both the audience and God. What may well reveal the ancient origins of flamenco are the gestures of the profound dance (baile grande), in which the arm, hand, and foot movements closely resemble those of classical Hindu dance of the Indian subcontinent.

History

The golden age of flamenco is usually considered to be the period between roughly 1780 and 1845. Singing was then the primary aspect of flamenco, dancing and musical accompaniment being secondary. What had been an essentially outdoor, outsider, family-oriented activity that focused on cante was transformed beginning in 1842, when Silverio Franconetti founded the first café cantante, Café sin Nombre, in Sevilla (Seville). That establishment and the many others that sprang up in the major urban centres of Spain—notably Granada, Córdoba, and Sevilla—placed emphasis on the musicians and dancers, and it was in this period that the singer began to take a secondary role. Although these commercial interests afforded a living for many performers for the first time, they also brought about what many considered a bastardization of an authentic indigenous art form. Several intellectuals, including Lorca and composer Manuel de Falla, sought to restore the purity of flamenco, and in 1922 they instituted the first flamenco competition—calling for cante primitivo andaluz (“primitive Andalusian cante”). This timely attempt to prevent the further debasement of an authentic folk art effectively promoted flamenco to a sophisticated urban public and helped to further the thoughtful development of the art within a modern context.

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Among the many great early 20th-century performers are La Argentina (Antonia Mercé), Vicente Escudero, Carmen Amaya, La Argentinita (Encarnación López), José Greco, and Pilar López, as well as the troupes of Antonio and Rosario (Antonio Ruiz Soler and Rosario Florencia Pérez Podilla) and Ximénez-Vargas (Roberto Ximénez and Manolo Vargas). Classically influenced flamenco artists Antonio Gades, Christina Hoyos, José Greco II, and Lola Greco have also pushed the boundaries of flamenco. Gades in particular, in his collaborations with the filmmaker Carlos Saura, introduced flamenco to an international audience, demonstrating through his ingenious choreographic direction the dimensions of flamenco as an expandable performance art.

Contemporary artists such as Eva la Yerbabuena, Joaquín Cortés, Antonio Canales, Belén Maya, and Juana Amaya are creating new rhythmic strategies in the studio and integrating them into longer narrative theatre pieces in which rhythm becomes the dominant element of the dance. In the last few decades of the 20th century, flamenco also was influenced by the general musical trend toward fusion of styles.