Other sources of folk motifs
The traditional survivals that play so significant a part in folk art stem from other sources as well. Certain motifs diffused from the earliest cultures provided a repertory of stylized symbols to meet decorative demands; for example, the rosette (a disk divided variously into petallike segments), the rayed disk and the swastika (both associated with sun symbolism), the tree of life, the chimera and other fantastic beasts, and such human-animal combinations as the siren or mermaid. The extent to which such motifs retain their meaning or may become simply an appropriate decoration for a certain type of object (as the mermaid is for boats) is problematic, but there is undoubtedly a high symbolic content in the art.
Some aspects of Classical mythology fed into folk art, partly by way of later European sophisticated art, and many medieval themes remained popular; the Saracen of the Crusades is a figure that still appears as a Sicilian puppet and as a revolving target in tilting games. Early Renaissance conceptions of paradise and landscapes with stylized trees and towered towns oddly recur in 19th-century folk painting, sometimes imparting an esoteric flavour to a local scene. In fact, the body of tradition retained in folk art may be seen as growing or shifting from one century or one place to another. A folk version of the horse-and-rider motif, in typical profile view, served with only a slight change of uniform for both the Napoleonic and the American Revolutionary soldier.
Although themes may fall into disuse, they do not become obsolete so readily as in sophisticated art. Yet, folk art is not merely a repository for tradition; new themes constantly evolve from old ones or out of new circumstances. In the wine-producing area around Alsace, France, Bacchus astride a barrel became the common motif for carved bungs (the stopper of a cask), thus utilizing the Classical Bacchus for a specific local commodity. In America, the Indian was widely adopted for weather vanes, trade figures, and other objects. Similar use was made of the personification of Liberty and the emblematic eagle.
All decorative design draws heavily on geometric and plant and animal motifs. In the folk use of this material there is often such concentration on one or two motifs that they become strongly identified with the regional style, as the tulip is in Pennsylvania German art; there is also a tendency to attach a particular motif to a particular object, for which it is used repeatedly. The prevalence of animal themes reflects the importance of animals in folk life.
Aside from their frequent appearance as realistic depictions, miniatures, and design elements, some animals also have strong symbolic aspects: the snake, the horse, and the cock, for example, occur with varying significance in many parts of the world.
Representational and narrative art other than the religious is often devoted to local subjects: the family portrait, the individual farm or church, or a typical activity. In Switzerland a favourite theme was the Alpengang, depicting the transferral of the cattle to high pastures in the spring. Folk artists also drew upon legend, popular romance, history, and the more famous literary and visual art themes that reached them from the sophisticated world. In Sicily the deeds of Roland (Orlando), derived from the poetic accounts by Torquato Tasso and Ludovico Ariosto, were repeatedly painted and enacted in puppet shows. From history, the patriot Giuseppe Garibaldi was as popular in Italian folk art as George Washington was in American; and the Prince of Wales was a favourite figure for pub signs in England.
Account must also be taken of the folk capacity for satire. The anticlerical humour of Italy has a folk manifestation in caricatures of impious monks and nuns. The Russians evolved stock figurines of the snobbish officer, the vain woman, the greedy merchant, the pretty girl riding on a rooster. The early prints of London and Paris had their lampoons, and Mexico had its effigies of personages who did not meet popular approval. Out of the slow exolutions typical of a strongly traditional art, there emerges an astute view of the human situation.
Major folk regions
The major recognized folk regions in most cases have been prolific in such crafts as textiles, pottery, and carving and in the production of implements and utensils; they also often have localized costumes. This common art output forms a broad basis underlying the more distinctive arts peculiar to particular areas. The material is so voluminous that most attempts at general survey are admittedly samplings.
General summaries are commonly organized by nation, a convenient expedient, because major collections are centred in great national museums and because folk art is often studied and promoted as part of the national heritage. However, a country-by-country summary divides some groups that are homogeneous, such as the Basques of Spain and France; and it combines, under Italy, for example, such diverse arts as the Alpine and Sicilian.
Any effort to group regions for comparative study will most logically be based on such factors as the traditional retained sources, the prevailing religion, the nature of the related sophisticated culture, and the environmental conditions that affect materials and activities.
Western
Mediterranean
Viewed in terms of these four factors, the European folk arts of the Mediterranean area obviously have much in common. First, there was a direct transmission from ancient Middle Eastern and Greek civilization, accentuated by Greek colonization in the West and followed by Roman domination. These sources, plus the local cults that occurred everywhere, may be traced even in recent art in the continuance of a rich pottery tradition from Greek times onward and in the preservation of many motifs. Second, the religion, chiefly Roman Catholic or Greek Orthodox, demanded extensive imagery. Third, in the sophisticated cultures throughout the historical period, art of all kinds was a major activity, developing high skills that penetrated to some extent even to the more isolated folk. Finally, contact was facilitated by active trade along an extensive coastline, and varied materials were available; yet the area industrialized very slowly, so that the folk arts could continue to thrive in some localities even to the present.
Thus, it is not surprising that the arts of this region are outstanding in quantity and variety. The level of skill is apparent, sometimes in bold and facile styles, sometimes in meticulous craftsmanship. Many folk artists were capable of expert full-round sculpture, realistic painting, fine metalwork, and other difficult techniques. The motifs are varied and freely intermingled.
Among the long-surviving regional arts are those of Epirus in Greece, where an important folk centre has been established at Metsovon; the islands—the Aegean with its stone architecture, Sicily with its spectacular carved and painted carts, puppets, and pottery, and Sardinia, noted for gold ornaments, textiles, and costumes still in use; and Puglia, Calabria, and Abruzzi regions in Italy, the latter having fine lace, silver filigree (openwork), and weaving.
Southern France is affiliated with this area, as is evidenced by the style of the fine ex-votos and Nativity figures of Provence. So is the Iberian Peninsula, though in that region there are also special factors. The Moorish influence was felt particularly in Andalusia—as in the use of ivory as a material and in the arabesque tracery (ornate, interlaced openwork) of the ironwork—and the Atlantic coastline provided other connections. The Portuguese use of cork was distinctive. Galicia and the Basque region, each with a population of distinct linguistic background, developed in prolonged isolation, the results of which are clearly visible in their exceptional arts: the architecture presents unique features, and the Basques are unusual in their lack of pottery, though they developed remarkable dance costumes. The difficulty of communications preserved a strong folk character not only in Galicia and the Basque region but throughout the peninsula. The painted and glazed tiles (azulejos), the textiles (notable in Salamanca), and carved furniture are among the products notably Iberian in character. Traditional survivals were strong in the northeast, with much religious art, including prints, centred in Catalonia.
Slavic area
Another possible grouping is the Slavic area in eastern Europe and Russia. There the influences from the ancient Middle East and Greece penetrated less far in early times but were transmitted (and transmuted) by way of the Byzantine Empire and the Eastern church. Much folk art in the area was strongly affected by the Byzantine style.
Among the transmitted elements were the themes and styles associated with icons, which were commonly hung—at wells, for example—until the mid-18th century, when their production was discouraged in Russia and thus dwindled. Two centuries of Mongol rule introduced other traditions stemming from the East and marked by the so-called animal style. In modern times these countries mostly had communist governments whose policy included promotion of the folk arts, organization of artists into cooperatives, and even the introduction of crafts from one area into another. Although this was a stimulus to the study of folk art, it tended to blur the distinction between the strictly folk and the revived or commercialized product. Even earlier, Russian folk art was subject to extraneous influences in a way not typical elsewhere: in the 17th century, craftsmen were requisitioned from many parts of Russia to supply products for the national economy or to work on palaces, and they were also assembled around monasteries for prescribed output.
The Russian products probably best known elsewhere are toys—intricate constructions of wood or vivid earthenware miniatures. Some of the Vyatka toys are thought to be survivals of idols made for homes, representing the innumerable local deities that preceded Christianity. Other notable arts include ceramic tiles, wooden and ceramic figurines, and bone carving in the Siberian tradition.
In eastern Europe, where national boundaries have been particularly confused and the population comprises various minorities, studies of the art may follow ethnic lines. The geography provides a number of distinct regions, which are as varied as coastal Dalmatia, Transdanubia, and the isolated Tatras mountains. With a heavily forested landscape, the work in wood was outstanding. It appeared in church architecture, architectural sculpture, vessels and implements, and in such special forms as the sculptured grave-post; even a corn bin might be covered with rosettes. The area was rich in festival arts, with a strong retention from pre-Christian traditions and magic rites. In the former Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic and Slovakia), there were special wedding effigies and candlesticks. Among many ancient motifs, such as vase-and-tree, sun, and heart, the cock appeared as a protective symbol that might be set on roof ridges or carved on cheese molds. Some of the art is strikingly primitive.
One of the complications arising in the study of eastern European arts is the fact that the countries involved are culturally borderline, having an affinity with Roman Catholic Europe in the West (exemplified by the ex-votos in the brilliant Czech glass painting) and with the Byzantine Empire in the East. The arts bracketed as Polish, including some of the finest decorative art in paper, once extended far to the east and yet are northern European.
Northern Europe
The situation in northern Europe was very different from that in the south, and not merely in climate. The tradition involved a different mythology, and the society lacked the sophisticated centres that had crystallized early in Greece and Italy. The Roman influences that reached northern Europe had far to travel; consequently, the transmitted motifs were fewer, and emphasis might be placed on technical execution rather than on variety. This can be seen in the prevalent and superb use of two motifs, the acanthus and the vine-and-tendril. It can also be seen in the animal style from the East, which penetrated and persisted, for example, in some fine architectural carving, with the tendency typical of this style toward flat and pierced rather than full-round rendering. Although religious art was by no means lacking, the Reformation, which in itself was a popular movement, curbed the use of extensive Catholic imagery as well as the demand for religious objects.
The festival arts drew heavily on northern pagan themes, and the impulse that gave rise to pre-Lenten carnival celebrations in the south was likely to find expression rather in municipal and occupational processions with comic giant figures drawn through the streets.
Some parts of the far north demonstrate that density of population is a factor in folk art; where farms are many miles apart with few opportunities for community contact, the art forms may tend to be few or even nonexistent. Even so, there may be one or two special crafts, such as the bone and horn carving of Lapland. Also, where materials are scarce, as in Iceland, variety of product depends on imports likely to be allocated to the sophisticated, not the folk. In more densely populated France, Germany, and The Netherlands, on the other hand, it is clear that peasant arts existed everywhere in the earlier periods but that the early establishment of trade routes and urban centres pushed the folk arts into special categories or into the peripheral areas.
Among the Scandinavian regions, Norway is noted for the rose painting of Hallingdal and Telemark Fylke, the needlework of Hardanger, and the pictorial weaving of Gudbrandsdalen. Sweden, among varied arts, had a unique type of built-in furniture and wall hangings that were either painted or woven with biblical and Icelandic motifs. Finland had a specific linear ornament called “dark drawing,” made by bending a strip of wood until the ends meet, and metal ornaments of prehistoric origin in Karelia. Distinctive folk art regions in Denmark include the Hedebo (now Hedeboryde) area, with its linen embroidery; the Fyn archipelago, with its colourful floral painting; and Jutland and Slesvig, with notable cabinetmaking. In the Baltic area there were many survivals of ancient motifs (swastikas, rayed disks, snakes, horse heads) used on varied products, including the remarkable crosses and roofed poles, often with symbolic wrought-iron finials (crowning ornaments).
