Idiophones

A wide assortment of idiophones are available to American Indians, but many of these are restricted to nonmusical uses. Concussion sticks, for instance, serve as game calls in North America, while concussion stones are invariably ritual: they are clashed to make thunder. Small conical bells of metal and multiclapper bells of wood were known in ancient Peru.

Slit drums have been played in the Americas since pre-Columbian times, but their occurrence in South America is now rare. Characteristic of the well-known teponaztli is the form of its slits, cut to form an H with tongues of different thicknesses, thus allowing it to emit two differently pitched sounds. Formerly, Zapotec warriors of Ixtepeji, Mex., went into battle carrying an idol and singing to the accompaniment of the teponaztli, while Indians of 16th-century Hispaniola danced to their slit drums.

Strung rattles are worn as leggings to emphasize a dancer’s movements, but when the strung material consists of a dead enemy’s teeth, as was the practice among the Brazilian Mundurukú, the rattle becomes a source of magic strength to the wearer; elsewhere, strung deer or caribou hooves attract game during the hunt. Vessel rattles of gourd and pottery imitations of gourds have been in use since Aztec times. Ritual instruments in the prehistoric Americas, they are still used by healers during their incantations. Hollow seed-filled staffs were ceremonial rattles of Aztec and Maya, and descendants of these instruments are still played.

Scrapers are seen on the Maya frescoes of the temple at Bonampak in Chiapas state, Mex., played in a procession. Today among the Pima people of Arizona, scrapers play an important part in rainmaking ceremonies. Elsewhere in North America they serve as time markers. Scraped sticks of animal or human bone or of antler, with a series of notches along one side, were sounded at Aztec sacrificial or memorial ceremonies. In modern times they have been played in North America by healers. Split idiophones were employed in western coastal areas of North America chiefly for ceremonial purposes; in some communities they were slapped against the chest and in others against the palms. Finally, a friction-instrument vessel of Central and South America, the rubbed tortoise carapace, is a ritual instrument and forbidden to the noninitiated; the instrument is rubbed with the fingers, not scraped.

Membranophones

Pre-Columbian drums of Mesoamerica appear to have been played without sticks, regardless of their size, and to have been devoid of lacings, whether they were small pottery drums, such as those excavated in Costa Rica, or the large footed drums of Mexico. Slender pottery drums of the Guatemala highlands, open top and bottom, can be dated to the late Classical period (c. 700–1000). Skeletons of wooden cylinder drums, very shallow, have been found in Peru.

The North American shallow drums are ritual and dance drums, having a heavy hide head struck by a hard beater and emitting a loud staccato sound. Larger models are suspended and struck simultaneously by up to 10 drummers seated in a surrounding circle. The “dream-dance” drum, a tub-shaped shallow drum, is elaborately decorated and has a bell suspended in its interior; it is credited with great healing power.

Cylinder drums made of a hollowed log were traditionally war and dance drums of tribes of the southwestern United States. Pottery drums, either potbellied, bowl-shaped, or footed, were formerly common among the eastern and southern Indians of the United States; the potbellied type remains in use among the Pueblo Indians of the Southwest.

American Indian frame drums are usually circular; square shapes are rare, but rectangular frame drums are found in California, Mexico, and Bolivia and octagonal ones among the Cherokee of the southeastern United States. All were war drums, regardless of whether they had one or two membranes. By adding a rattling device, a frame drum is converted into a medicine drum. The Inuit frame drum, a shaman’s instrument, is distributed over Greenland, northern Siberia, North America, and among the Sami of northern Scandinavia; it differs from other frame drums in that it has a fixed handle and is struck on the hoop, not on the membrane.

Friction drums are rare; in Venezuela one is formed from a small barrel over which a piece of leather is stretched, with central perforation to admit a friction stick.