peyote music
- Key People:
- Jim Pepper
- Related Topics:
- Native American music
- peyote
peyote music, a type of Native American music associated with the sacramental consumption of the vision-inducing peyote cactus (Lophophora) by followers of the Native American Church.
Peyote in Native American religion
The precise origin of the use of peyote as a religious sacrament among North American native peoples remains uncertain. It is possible that the practice traveled from the Huichol and the Tarahumara in Mexico via various other native peoples—notably the Carrizo, the Karankawa, the Tonkawa, and the Mescalero and Lipan Apache—to reach the Navajo and other indigenous groups of the southwestern United States by the mid-to-late 1800s. Ceremonial peyote usage spread from the Southwest to other areas of the United States, becoming well known in Oklahoma through Quanah Parker (Comanche) and John Wilson (Caddo, Delaware, and French). In 1918 a variant of the tradition was formally incorporated in Oklahoma as the Native American Church. In that tradition the buds of the peyote cactus are eaten by participants to enable communion with and empowerment by God. In the 21st century the sacramental consumption of peyote continued to be practiced by many Native Americans, not only on reservations but also in urban communities throughout the United States.
The context of peyote music
Peyote music is performed in the context of peyote “meetings.” Although largely associated with healing rituals, meetings also mark wakes, births, and other major life events, as well as memorable moments in a community’s history. Meetings may be held in a tepee or in another designated gathering place. They begin at sunset and conclude at dawn the next day with a breakfast. The meeting leader, or “road man,” oversees the general arc of the ceremony, as defined by the singing of four core songs: “Opening Song,” “Midnight Water Song,” “Sunrise Song” (also called “Daybreak Song”), and “Closing Song.” Each of these songs is performed at a particular point in the course of the event and is sung four times. Between these performances, various other singers—who may be men or women, depending on tribal and local protocols—lead additional songs in sets of four; like the four core songs, each song within a set is repeated four times. The other participants provide choral support for the song leaders.
Elements of performance
In the rituals of the Native American Church, peyote songs are accompanied by a gourd rattle, shaken by the song leader, and a water drum, played by another meeting participant. The rattle is constructed from a dried gourd that is filled with stones or other noisemakers and fitted onto a wood handle. It is decorated according to the specific variant of the ritual in which it will be used. The water drum is typically constructed from a small iron kettle that is partially filled with water. Across the opening of the kettle, an animal-skin drumhead is affixed with rope. The relative wetness and tightness of the drumhead, as well as the level of the water inside the kettle, determine the pitch and resonance of the instrument.
Although the instrumental accompaniment to peyote songs is based on a duple rhythm, the songs themselves do not usually conform to a regular metre. The accompaniment is played at a fast tempo on both the rattle and the water drum. Holding a stick, drummers use one hand to beat the rhythm. With the other hand, they manipulate the pitch to support the singer’s melody by tilting the instrument and moving the water inside. The water drum, then, serves a rhythmic as well as a melodic function in peyote music.
Peyote songs are performed both in unison and in harmonized settings, reflecting an intersection of Native American and European musical cultures. Also indicative of this intersection are the songs’ texts, which consist variously of vocables (nonlexical syllables), words in a particular Native American language, and words in English, based on the preference and intention of each song’s creator. Among the features that distinguish peyote songs from other intertribal genres, such as Plains powwow songs, are the relatively relaxed vocal quality and the use of certain vocable phrases (e.g., hey ne no wa) at melodic cadences.
Peyote music in contemporary popular culture
Since the mid-20th century, peyote music has become increasingly prominent in popular culture. The first commercial recordings of peyote music appeared in the 1940s on the American Indian Soundchiefs label, founded by Kiowa Methodist minister Linn D. Pauahty. While those releases may originally have been intended for use by followers of the Native American Church, they eventually found crossover success and mainstream appeal. Saxophonist Jim Pepper, for instance, made a notable mark on the pop music world with his jazz-, rock-, and country music–influenced arrangement of the peyote song “Witchi Tai To” (1969). The song reached number 69 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the year of its release and was later covered by various artists around the world. “Witchi Tai To” remained popular in various versions into the 21st century. Peyote songs were further popularized by Native American singers Verdell Primeaux (Dakota, or Sioux) and Johnny Mike (Navajo), whose Bless the People: Harmonized Peyote Songs (2000) won a Grammy Award in 2001 for best Native American music album. Since 2007 the Native American Music Awards—founded in 1998 to honour Native American achievement in the music industry—have included a category for best Native American Church recording.
