It is doubtful whether any principles of design are universal in the art of sculpture, for the principles that govern the organization of the elements of sculpture into expressive compositions differ from style to style. In fact, distinctions made among the major styles of sculpture are largely based on a recognition of differences in the principles of design that underlie them. Thus, the art historian Erwin Panofsky was attempting to define a difference of principle in the design of Romanesque and Gothic sculpture when he stated that the forms of Romanesque were conceived as projections from a plane outside themselves, while those of Gothic were conceived as being centred on an axis within themselves. The “principle of axiality” was considered by Panofsky to be “the essential principle of classical statuary,” which Gothic had rediscovered.

The principles of sculptural design govern the approaches of sculptors to such fundamental matters as orientation, proportion, scale, articulation, and balance.

For conceiving and describing the orientation of the forms of sculpture in relation to each other, to a spectator, and to their surroundings, some kind of spatial scheme of reference is required. This is provided by a system of axes and planes of reference.

An axis is an imaginary centre line through a symmetrical or near symmetrical volume or group of volumes that suggests the gravitational pivot of the mass. Thus, all the main components of the human body have axes of their own, while an upright figure has a single vertical axis running through its entire length. Volumes may rotate or tilt on their axes.

Planes of reference are imaginary planes to which the movements, positions, and directions of volumes, axes, and surfaces may be referred. The principal planes of reference are the frontal, the horizontal, and the two profile planes.

Britannica Quiz

Everything in Art and Design (Part Four) Quiz

The principles that govern the characteristic poses and spatial compositions of upright figures in different styles of sculpture are formulated with reference to axes and the four cardinal planes: for example, the principle of axiality already referred to; the principle of frontality, which governs the design of Archaic sculpture; the characteristic contrapposto (pose in which parts of the body, such as upper and lower, tilt or even twist in opposite directions) of Michelangelo’s figures; and in standing Greek sculpture of the Classical period the frequently used balanced “chiastic” pose (stance in which the body weight is taken principally on one leg, thereby creating a contrast of tension and relaxation between the opposite sides of a figure).

Proportional relations exist among linear dimensions, areas, and volumes and masses. All three types of proportion coexist and interact in sculpture, contributing to its expressiveness and beauty. Attitudes toward proportion differ considerably among sculptors. Some sculptors, both abstract and figurative, use mathematical systems of proportion; for example, the refinement and idealization of natural human proportions was a major preoccupation of Greek sculptors. Indian sculptors employed iconometric canons, or systems of carefully related proportions, that determined the proportions of all significant dimensions of the human figure. African and other sculptors base the proportions of their figures on the subjective importance of the parts of the body. Unnatural proportions may be used for expressive purposes or to accommodate a sculpture to its surroundings. The elongation of the figures on the Portail Royal (“Royal Portal”) of Chartres cathedral does both: it enhances their otherworldliness and also integrates them with the columnar architecture.

Sometimes it is necessary to adapt the proportions of sculpture to suit its position in relation to a viewer. A figure sited high on a building, for example, is usually made larger in its upper parts in order to counteract the effects of foreshortening. This should be allowed for when a sculpture intended for such a position is exhibited on eye level in a museum.

The scale of sculpture must sometimes be considered in relation to the scale of its surroundings. When it is one element in a larger complex, such as the facade of a building, it must be in scale with the rest. Another important consideration that sculptors must take into account when designing outdoor sculpture is the tendency of sculpture in the open air—particularly when viewed against the sky—to appear less massive than it does in a studio. Because one tends to relate the scale of sculpture to one’s own human physical dimensions, the emotional impact of a colossal figure and a small figurine are quite different.

In ancient and medieval sculpture the relative scale of the figures in a composition is often determined by their importance; e.g., enslaved persons are much smaller than kings or nobles. This is sometimes known as hierarchic scale.

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The joining of one form to another may be accomplished in a variety of ways. In much of the work of the 19th-century French sculptor Auguste Rodin, there are no clear boundaries, and one form is merged with another in an impressionistic manner to create a continuously flowing surface. In works by the Greek sculptor Praxiteles, the forms are softly and subtly blended by means of smooth, blurred transitions. The volumes of Indian sculpture and the surface anatomy of male figures in the style of the Greek sculptor Polyclitus are sharply defined and clearly articulated. One of the main distinctions between the work of Italian and northern Renaissance sculptors lies in the Italians’ preference for compositions made up of clearly articulated, distinct units of form and the tendency of the northern Europeans to subordinate the individual parts to the allover flow of the composition.

The balance, or equilibrium, of freestanding sculpture has three aspects. First, the sculpture must have actual physical stability. This can be achieved by natural balance—that is, by making the sculpture stable enough in itself to stand firmly—which is easy enough to do with a four-legged animal or a reclining figure but not with a standing figure or a tall, thin sculpture, which must be secured to a base. The second aspect of balance is compositional. The interaction of forces and the distribution of weight within a composition may produce a state of either dynamic or static equilibrium. The third aspect of balance applies only to sculpture that represents a living figure. A live human figure balances on two feet by making constant movements and muscular adjustments. Such an effect can be conveyed in sculpture by subtle displacements of form and suggestions of tension and relaxation.

Relationships to other arts

Sculpture has long been closely related to architecture through its role as architectural decoration and also at the level of design. Architecture, like sculpture, is concerned with three-dimensional form; and, although the central problem in the design of buildings is the organization of space rather than mass, there are styles of architecture that are effective largely through the quality and organization of their solid forms. Ancient styles of stone architecture, particularly Egyptian, Greek, and Mexican, tend to treat their components in a sculptural manner. Moreover, most buildings viewed from the outside are compositions of masses. The growth of spatial sculpture is so intimately related to the opening up and lightening of architecture, which the development of modern building technology has made possible, that many 20th-century sculptors can be said to have treated their work in an architectural manner.

Some forms of relief sculpture approach very closely the pictorial arts of painting, drawing, engraving, and so on. And sculptures in the round that make use of chiaroscuro and that are conceived primarily as pictorial views rather than as compositions in the round are said to be “painterly”; for example, Bernini’s Ecstasy of St. Teresa.

The borderlines between sculpture and pottery and the metalworking arts are not clear-cut, and many pottery and metal artifacts have every claim to be considered as sculpture. Today there is a growing affinity between the work of industrial designers and sculptors. Sculptural modeling techniques, and sometimes sculptors themselves, are often involved, for example, in the initial stages of the design of new automobile bodies.

The close relationships that exist between sculpture and the other visual arts are attested by the number of artists who have readily turned from one art to another; for example, Michelangelo, Bernini, Pisanello, Degas, and Picasso.