The late 1960s and early ’70s: the relevance movement
After the introduction of television to the public in the 1940s, a distinct dichotomy emerged between entertainment programming (which made up the bulk of the most popular shows) and news, documentary, and other less-common nonfiction shows. Throughout the 1950s, for example, stories concerning the Cold War and the emerging civil rights movement were reported on the news and in the occasional documentary, but they were for the most part ignored on popular prime-time programs. This dichotomy became even more apparent in the 1960s.
During times of national crises, television galvanized the country by preempting regular programming to provide essential coverage of significant events. Memorable examples of this were seen during the Cuban Missile Crisis, the 14 days in 1962 when the United States and the Soviet Union squared off over the placement of Russian missiles in Cuba, and the four days’ reportage of the assassination and funeral of John F. Kennedy. The same was true with news coverage of the U.S. space program, especially the Moon landing in July 1969. Films of battlefield activity in Vietnam, as well as photographs, interviews, and casualty reports, were broadcast daily from the centres of conflict into American living rooms. As both international and domestic upheaval escalated in the 1960s, network news departments, originally conceived of as fulfilling a public service, became profit centres. CBS and NBC expanded their daily evening news broadcasts from 15 to 30 minutes in the fall of 1963, and ABC followed in 1967.
Although news coverage brought increasingly disturbing reports as the decade progressed, prime-time programming presented an entirely different picture. The escapist fictional fare of prime time made little reference to what was being reported on the news. That began to change in the late 1960s and early ’70s, but the transition was an awkward one; some shows began to reflect the new cultural landscape, but most continued to ignore it. That Girl (ABC, 1966–71), an old-fashioned show about a single woman living and working in the big city—with the help of her boyfriend and her “daddy”—aired on the same schedule as The Mary Tyler Moore Show (CBS, 1970–77), a new-fashioned comedy about a single woman making it on her own. In the same week, one could watch The Lawrence Welk Show (ABC, 1955–71), a 15-year-old musical variety program that featured a legendary polka band, and Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In (NBC, 1968–73), an irreverent new comedy-variety show plugged into the 1960s counterculture. The 1970–71 season was the last season for a number of series that had defined the old television landscape, including The Ed Sullivan Show, The Lawrence Welk Show, The Red Skelton Show, The Andy Williams Show, and Lassie, all of which had been on the air since the 1950s or earlier. Such traditional sitcoms as That Girl and Hogan’s Heroes also left the air at the end of that season, as did a number of lingering variety programs.
The new cultural landscape
CBS was the first of the three networks to radically overhaul its program schedule, eliminating several shows that were still delivering very high ratings. Such CBS hits as The Jim Nabors Hour (CBS, 1969–71), Mayberry R.F.D., and Hee-Haw were all in the top 30 the year they were canceled by the network. The Beverly Hillbillies and Green Acres were also eliminated at the end of the 1970–71 season, and not a single rural comedy was left on CBS, the network that had based much of its competitive dominance in the 1960s on that genre.
Even before 1971, however, more-diverse programming had gradually been introduced to network TV, most notably on NBC. The Bill Cosby Show (1969–71), Julia (1968–71), and The Flip Wilson Show (1970–74) were among the first programs to feature African Americans in starring roles since the stereotyped presentations of Amos ’n’ Andy and Beulah (ABC, 1950–53). Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In was proving, as had The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour (CBS, 1967–69) a few seasons earlier, that even the soon-to-be-moribund variety-show format could deliver new and contemporary messages. Dramatic series such as The Mod Squad (ABC, 1968–73), The Bold Ones (NBC, 1969–73), and The Young Lawyers (ABC, 1970–71) injected timely social issues into traditional genres featuring doctors, lawyers, and the police. In another development, 60 Minutes (CBS, begun 1968) fashioned the modern newsmagazine into a prime-time feature.
Although 60 Minutes would rank in the Nielsen top 20 (including five seasons as number one) for more than 25 years after it settled into its Sunday night time slot in 1975, the other aforementioned innovative shows were off the air by 1974. They represented, nevertheless, the future of network entertainment television. In canceling many of its hit shows after the 1970–71 season, CBS had identified and reacted to an important new industrial trend. As the 1970s approached, advertisers had become increasingly sensitive to the demographic makeup of their audience, and the ratings services were developing new methods of obtaining more detailed demographic data. As television marketing grew in sophistication, advertisers began to target young audiences, who tended to be heavy consumers and who tended to be more susceptible to commercial messages. In 1970 these audiences also tended to be intensely interested in the cultural, social, and political upheaval of the times. CBS responded to advertisers with a new vision that—despite the high ratings of its older shows—aimed at a youthful audience.
Even without the advertising imperative, the TV landscape must have seemed very strange to many young viewers involved in the contemporary social movements. In 1968, for example, both civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., and liberal presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy were assassinated; riots and protests were common on campuses across the country, and major protests took place during the Democratic convention in Chicago; and the Tet Offensive was launched in Vietnam. That same year, the second highest rated TV show in the United States was Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C., a series following the activities of a Marine Corps private that never mentioned the Vietnam War. Mayberry R.F.D. (in fourth place), which took place in a small North Carolina town, never mentioned the issue of race. Other CBS hits such as Here’s Lucy (1968–74) and Gunsmoke seemed products of a bygone era and were of little interest to younger viewers. CBS executives also noticed that the few youth-oriented shows that were on the air were doing very well at the end of the decade. In the 1968–69 season, NBC’s controversial and hip Laugh-In, for example, was the highest-rated show of the year. So, in a move uncharacteristically bold for an American television network, CBS scrapped an assortment of its hit series and launched what turned out to be an unprecedented updating of prime-time television programming. Within four years, entertainment TV would look nothing like it did in 1969. The “real world” of social, familial, and national dysfunction, which had been ignored by TV for so long, was about to break into prime time. With the spectacular success of three strikingly new programs—All in the Family, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, and M*A*S*H, CBS redefined the medium.
All in the Family
Created by Norman Lear and based loosely on the British sitcom Till Death Us Do Part, All in the Family was the clearest example of what would soon be known as “relevance TV.” It took as its subject matter issues that were pertinent to American life in the 1970s, featuring stories about agnosticism, rape, radical politics, racism, impotence, and a host of other previously forbidden topics. Although the show featured a typical sitcom setting (a living room), everything looked and sounded different. Shot on videotape, the show had a visual immediacy unprecedented in television sitcoms. Its characters were loud and sometimes brash, and the language used was often profane, racist, or otherwise offensive. For the first time in TV series history, an onscreen warning preceded the broadcast, preparing viewers for the controversial nature of the program to follow.
Like so many television sitcoms, All in the Family focused on the domestic life of an American family. Unlike the idealized sitcom families of the 1950s and ’60s—those of Leave It to Beaver, The Donna Reed Show (ABC, 1958–66), and Father Knows Best, for example—the Bunkers fought the cultural and generational battles typical of the era in the living room of their Queens, N.Y., bungalow. Archie Bunker (played by Carroll O’Connor), the middle-aged blue-collar head of the household, is a bigot who longs for the days of Herbert Hoover and resents the changing attitudes of his country and the changing racial profile of his neighbourhood. He leads a reasonably stable life working as a dock foreman, fending off the counterculture, and supporting his daffy but principled stay-at-home wife, Edith (played by Jean Stapleton), and his modern but docile daughter, Gloria (played by Sally Struthers). After Gloria marries Michael Stivic (played by Rob Reiner), a long-haired, liberal-minded graduate student whose lack of income forces him to live under Archie’s roof, the comic fighting between Archie and his son-in-law mirrors the complex social, political, and cultural debates that were raging in the United States at the time.
The Mary Tyler Moore Show
Although All in the Family, introduced in January of the 1970–71 season, was the most notorious and controversial of CBS’s new relevance programming, it was not the first. Back in September of that same season, The Mary Tyler Moore Show made a much quieter debut. It presented an ensemble of believable characters behaving in ways that seemed fairly normal to the average viewer. Whereas All in the Family often discussed the women’s movement, The Mary Tyler Moore Show showed it as lived by one American woman, Mary Richards (played by Mary Tyler Moore), a single woman in her 30s who works in the newsroom of a Minneapolis, Minn., television station. Unlike the single career woman in That Girl, an old-style comedy that ran contemporaneously with The Mary Tyler Moore Show for a season, Mary Richards had no steady boyfriend and no omnipresent father, and she subtly revealed in one episode that she took birth-control pills.
The creators of the show had to work within limitations. As originally conceived, Mary Richards was a divorced woman, and, had she ultimately been presented as such, she would have broken new ground as the principal character of a television series. Many television historians cite an unnamed CBS executive who allegedly claimed that the American public would never accept a series with a lead character who was divorced, was from New York, was Jewish, or had a mustache. Whether this industry legend is true or not, CBS did insist that Mary be reconceived as a single woman recovering from the breakup of a long-standing relationship. Things changed rapidly after that, however. Four years later, CBS introduced Rhoda (1974–78), a spinoff of The Mary Tyler Moore Show that featured Valerie Harper as a Jewish New Yorker who divorces her husband during the run of the series. Then, in 1975, Norman Lear’s One Day at a Time (1975–84), the first successful series about a divorced woman, became a hit for CBS.