Charm is the main ingredient of the more sentimental Viennese operetta, and it usually submerges the rarer shaft of social comment. The younger Johann Strauss made operetta an international entertainment by an expert blend of charm and craft, and his Die Fledermaus (1874; The Bat) remains a classic of its kind. A second generation in this tradition was chiefly distinguished by Franz Lehár, whose Die lustige Witwe (1905; The Merry Widow) represents the genre at its peak of romantic elegance, demonstrating a style and craftsmanship that seems in serious danger of being lost altogether.

Such operettas remain current in today’s musical theatre mainly as an indulgence of musical and emotional nostalgia. Their popular style enabled them to take root and flourish far from their native territories, including transplantation to the United States. The indigenous tradition of the U.S. stage musical, already mentioned, first had to compete with European-style operetta. That the latter keeps a tenacious hold on popular affections is demonstrated by figures listing Rudolf Friml’s Rose Marie (1924) and Sigmund Romberg’s The Desert Song (1926) as the most frequently performed works in U.S. musical theatre, in terms of both amateur and professional performances.

Zarzuela

Spain was a prominent exception to the wide dissemination of operetta, preferring instead the flourishing native variety of zarzuela. This form customarily incorporates regional songs and dances, sometimes with traditional rather than original music. It continues to some extent as a staple fare in Spanish musical theatre, although the general contemporary trend toward a more universal style of musical expression has meant that the younger Spanish composer has shown much less interest in the zarzuela form as an outlet for his musical imagination.

The Romantic zarzuela has little resemblance to the aristocratic and courtly character of its 17th-century namesake and emerged with French and Viennese operetta during the 19th century. It divided into two forms—the zarzuela grande in three acts, equivalent to romantic operetta, and the género chico in one act, invariably comic, usually satirical, employing the broadest musical vernacular, and verging on revue. In the former category, the names of Francisco Barbieri, Amadeo Vives, and Federico Moreno Torroba are probably the most significant representatives of their respective generations.

The Spanish character and language of the Romantic zarzuelas made them exportable to Central and South America, where they became a model for the limited indigenous musical theatre. The South American centres are otherwise dominated by imports or imitations of the Italian opera tradition or used as transit bases for the latest North American stage musical on its theatrical circumnavigation. Certain examples of the Spanish zarzuela, such as Moreno Torroba’s Luisa Fernanda (1932), have achieved popular success in Latin American countries, where local contributions to the genre have notably been made by Juan Bautista Massa in Argentina, Andrés Martínez Montoya in Colombia, Luis Delgadillo in Nicaragua, and Teodoro Valcárcel in Peru.

China

The classical Peking opera (ching-hsi) in China is a form of musical theatre in which music is one among several elements rather than a governing factor, as in Western opera. The vocal writing alternates between styles broadly equivalent to recitative and song, distinguished by a forced high falsetto tone required from the male singers. A less stylized variety is the all-female yüeh ch’ü, in which natural singing voices perform musical plays in realistic and decorative scenery, and the Manchurian P’ing Hsi, which has developed into an operetta-like equivalent, with traditions and subjects derived from strolling players and folk legends.

Since 1964 the performance of classical Peking opera in Communist China has been mainly restricted to festival occasions (although state-sponsored schools continue to train performers especially for it). More emphasis has been put on entertainments closer to Western musicals, involving contemporary dialogue, everyday dress, and less stylized music. As a popular form of musical theatre it has been turned to political and social advantage with a new and adapted repertory of dramatic ballets and musical plays, bearing such titles as Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy and The Red Detachment of Women.

Japan

Music is as much a regular part of theatre performance in Japan as it is in China. The highly formal tradition of Japanese Nō drama incorporates music as an integral feature, usually performed by flute, a variety of stringed instrument called the samisen, drums, and singers. The music varies in content and character with the subject of the play and obeys detailed melodic rules—especially in the central dance episode designed to reveal the spirit of the play’s principal character. A less formal counterpart, the Kabuki theatre, has almost as impressive an ancestry as the Nō and continues to be widely performed, with music used to indicate period, place, time, or mood and often functioning by phrase association like the principle of leading motives in Richard Wagner.

India

Japanese theatre also incorporates music dramas of Indian origin, and the Indian theatre tradition is a full combination of poetry, music, dance, and symbolism. The music is often interpolated rather than specially composed and is likely to be drawn from the repertory of widely known songs without aiming at a high classical standard. The close association of music with drama in Indian culture has been carried over into Indian film, which cannot hope to enjoy wide success among its modern audiences unless it is liberally embellished with songs and other forms of music.