Charles XIV John

Charles XIV John (born Jan. 26, 1763, Pau, France—died March 8, 1844, Stockholm, Swed.) was a French Revolutionary general and marshal of France (1804), who was elected crown prince of Sweden (1810), becoming regent and then king of Sweden and Norway (1818–44). Active in several Napoleonic campaigns between 1805 and 1809, he subsequently shifted allegiances and formed Swedish alliances with Russia, Great Britain, and Prussia, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig (1813).

Bernadotte was the son of a lawyer. At the age of 17 he enlisted in the French army. By 1790 he had become an ardent supporter of the Revolution and rose rapidly from sublieutenant in 1792 to brigadier general in 1794. During the campaigns in Germany, the Low Countries, and Italy he restrained his troops from plundering and gained a reputation as a disciplinarian. Bernadotte first met Napoleon Bonaparte in 1797 in Italy. Their relationship, at first friendly, was soon embittered by rivalries and misunderstandings.

In January 1798 Bernadotte was expected to succeed Bonaparte in command of the army of Italy but instead was appointed ambassador to Vienna until April, when his mission ended. On Aug. 17, 1798, having returned to Paris, he married Désirée Clary, Napoleon’s former fiancée and the sister-in-law of Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s older brother.

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Bernadotte campaigned in Germany during the winter following his marriage, and from July to September 1799 he was minister of war. His growing fame, however, and his contacts with the radical Jacobins irritated Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès—one of the five members of the government of the Directory that ruled France from 1795 to 1799—who engineered his removal. In November 1799 Bernadotte refused to assist Bonaparte’s coup d’état that ended the Directory but neither did he defend it. He was a councillor of state from 1800 to 1802 and became commander of the army of the west. In 1802 he fell under suspicion of complicity with a group of army officers of republican sympathies who disseminated anti-Bonapartist pamphlets and propaganda from the city of Rennes (the “Rennes plot”). Although no evidence has been found that he was involved, it is clear that he would have favoured constitutional limitation of the powers of Napoleon, who had in 1799 become the first consul—to all intents and purposes, dictator of France—or even his overthrow. In January 1803 Bonaparte appointed Bernadotte minister to the United States, but Bernadotte delayed his departure because of rumours of approaching war between France and England and remained inactive in Paris for a year. When, on May 18, 1804, Napoleon proclaimed the empire, Bernadotte declared full loyalty to him and, in May, was named marshal of the empire. In June he became the military and civil governor of the electorate of Hanover, and while in office he attempted to set up an equitable system of taxation. This did not prevent him from beginning to accumulate a sizable fortune with the “tributes” he received from Hanover and the Hanseatic city of Bremen.

In 1805 Bernadotte was given command of the I Army Corps during the Austrian campaign. Difficulties delayed his march toward Vienna, and in the battle at Austerlitz, in which Napoleon defeated the combined Russo-Austrian forces, the corps played a dramatic but somewhat minor role. Napoleon gave Bernadotte command of the occupation of Ansbach (1806) and in the same year made him prince of Ponte-Corvo. In July 1807 Bernadotte was named governor of the occupied Hanseatic cities of northern Germany. In the Battle of Wagram, in which the French defeated the Austrians, he lost more than one-third of his soldiers and then returned to Paris “for reasons of health” but obviously in deep disfavour. Napoleon, however, put him in command of the defense of the Netherlands against the threatened British invasion; Bernadotte ably organized the defense. When Bernadotte returned to Paris, political suspicions still surrounded him, and his position remained uncertain.

Despite the distrust of French politicians, however, dramatic new possibilities now opened up to him: he was invited to become crown prince of Sweden. In 1809 a palace revolution had overthrown King Gustav IV of Sweden and had put the aged, childless, and sickly Charles XIII on the throne. The Danish prince Christian August had been elected crown prince but died suddenly in 1810, and the Swedes turned to Napoleon for advice. The Emperor, however, was reluctant to exert a decisive influence, and the initiative fell to the young Swedish baron Carl Otto Mörner. Mörner approached Bernadotte since he respected his military ability, his skillful and humane administration of Hanover and the Hanseatic towns, and his charitable treatment of Swedish prisoners in Germany. The Riksdag (diet), influenced by similar considerations, by their regard for French military power, and by financial promises from Bernadotte, abandoned other candidates, and on Aug. 21, 1810, Bernadotte was elected Swedish crown prince. On October 20 he accepted Lutheranism and landed in Sweden; he was adopted as son by Charles XIII and took the name of Charles John (Karl Johan). The Crown Prince at once assumed control of the government and acted officially as regent during the illnesses of Charles XIII. Napoleon now tried to prevent any reorientation of Swedish foreign policy and moreover sent an immediate demand that Sweden declare war on Great Britain; the Swedes had no choice, but, though technically in a state of war between 1810 and 1812, Sweden and Great Britain did not engage in active hostilities. Then, in January 1812, Napoleon suddenly occupied Swedish Pomerania.

Charles John was anxious to achieve something for Sweden that would prove his worth to the Swedes and establish his dynasty in power. He could, as many Swedes wished, have regained Finland from Russia, either by conquest or by negotiation. Political developments, however, prompted another solution, namely the conquest of Norway from Denmark, based on a Swedish alliance with Napoleon’s enemies. An alliance was signed with Russia in April 1812, with Great Britain in March 1813—with the British granting a subsidy for the proposed conquest of Norway—and with Prussia in April 1813. Urged by the allies, however, Charles John agreed to take part in the great campaign against Napoleon and to postpone his war with Denmark. The Crown Prince landed his troops at Stralsund, Ger., in May 1813 and soon took command of the allied army of the north. Although the Swedish troops contributed to the allied successes, Charles John intended to conserve his forces for the war with Denmark, and the Prussians bore the brunt of the fighting.

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After the decisive Battle of Leipzig (October 1813), Napoleon’s first great defeat, Charles John succeeded in defeating the Danes in a swift campaign and forced King Frederick VI of Denmark to sign the Treaty of Kiel (January 1814), which transferred Norway to the Swedish crown. Charles John now had dreams of becoming king or “protector” of France, but he had become alienated from the French people, and the victorious allies would not tolerate another soldier in charge of French affairs. Bernadotte’s dream dissolved, and his brief visit to Paris after the armistice was not glorious.

New difficulties recalled him to Scandinavia. The Norwegians refused to recognize the Treaty of Kiel, and in May 1814 a Norwegian assembly in Eidsvold, Nor., adopted a liberal constitution. Charles John conducted an efficient and almost bloodless campaign, and in August the Norwegians signed the Convention of Moss, whereby they accepted Charles XIII as king but retained the May constitution. Thus, when force might have imposed any system on the Norwegians (for a time at least), the Crown Prince insisted on a constitutional settlement.

At the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), Austria and the French Bourbons were hostile to the upstart prince, and the son of the deposed Gustav was a potential pretender to the throne. But, thanks to Russian and British support, the status of the new dynasty was undisturbed, and in Sweden its opponents were very few. Upon the death of Charles XIII on Feb. 5, 1818, Charles John became king of Sweden and Norway, and the former republican and revolutionary general became a conservative ruler. His failure to learn Swedish increased his difficulties, yet his experience, his knowledge, and his magnetic personal charm gave him preponderant political influence. Though blunt in speech, he was cautious and farsighted in action. His foreign policy inaugurated a long and favourable period of peace, based on good relations with Russia and Great Britain. In domestic affairs, farsighted legislation helped the rapid expansion of Swedish agriculture and the Norwegian shipping trade; in Sweden, the famous Göta Canal was completed, postwar financial problems were solved, and during the reign both countries enjoyed a rapid increase in population. On the other hand, the King’s autocratic tendencies, restrictions on the liberty of the press, and his reluctance to introduce liberal reforms in commercial and industrial policy and in the organization of the Swedish Riksdag led to a growing opposition that culminated during the late 1830s with the trial of journalist M.J. Crusenstolpe and the resultant Rabulist riots, leading to some demands for his abdication. In Norway there was opposition to the Swedish predominance within the union and to the royal influence over the legislature. But the King rode out the storms, and the 25th anniversary of his succession to the throne in 1843 was an occasion for successful royalist propaganda and popular acclaim in both Norway and Sweden.