South African literature, the body of writings in either Afrikaans or English produced in what is now the Republic of South Africa. The rest of African literature is treated in African literature.
South Africa was colonized by Europeans against the resistance of Africans and was for some time afterward a battlefield between Briton and Boer. Although South Africa became independent in 1910, the nation’s varied ethnic constituents have not yet been unified in a harmonious whole, and the tension arising from the unequal relations between blacks and whites is the authentic note of much South African literature. Indigenous South African literature effectively began in the late 19th century and became fairly copious in the 20th century. Much of the work by persons born in South Africa was limited in its viewpoint; often these writers only dimly apprehended the aspirations, perceptions, and traditions of South Africans belonging to a people other than their own. English-speaking South African writers are mainly urban and cosmopolitan; their culture is English, and they often have a wider audience among English-speaking communities abroad. By contrast, Afrikaans writers belonged for many decades to a close-knit community—born of a defensive posture—with shared experiences (including rural roots), shared aspirations and religion, and a strong sense of nationhood. Only in the 1960s did a major break with this tradition become apparent.
The twin 20th-century phenomena of urbanization and apartheid greatly affected the psychological makeup and thus the literary expression of English- and Afrikaans-speaking whites, as well as of indigenous Africans. The moral and artistic challenges inherent in South Africa’s situation stimulated writing up to a point, but the South African preoccupation with “race” problems may ultimately have proven inimical to the creation of an authentic national literature.
Although Afrikaans had diverged sufficiently from its parent Dutch by about 1750 to be considered a language on its own, the first Afrikaans texts were not published until more than a century later. In 1875 a group of nationally conscious men established the Association of True Afrikaners, which eventually published the first newspaper, the first magazine, and the first literary texts in Afrikaans. The leader of the so-called First Afrikaans Language Movement was S.J. du Toit, a Dutch Reformed pastor and a versatile and prolific author. The writings of the First Language Movement were propagandist, aiming to break down prejudice against the new language and to prove that it could be an effective means of communication.
Out of the Boers’ defeat in the South African War (1899–1902) came a new upsurge to establish Afrikaans as a national language. The Second Afrikaans Language Movement spread north from Cape Province, and Afrikaans gradually won ascendancy over Dutch, replacing Dutch as the medium of instruction in schools, as the language of the Dutch Reformed churches, and finally as an official language of the (then) Union of South Africa in 1925. Poets were the outstanding writers of the second movement, which spanned the first two decades of the 20th century. Chief among them were Eugène Marais, with his disillusioned and compassionate verse on human suffering; Jan F.E. Celliers, a pastoral poet; Jakob Daniel du Toit (Totius), who wrote some of the best elegiacs in Afrikaans; and C. Louis Leipoldt, whose poetry expressed the suffering inflicted by the South African War and whose collection of short lyric poems, Slampamperliedjies (“Songs of a Reveler”), express a sensuous appreciation of nature.
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Poetry: First Lines
Afrikaans prose writing made important strides in the 1920s and ’30s. In the genre of local realism, two novelists achieved success with their delineations of the folk of farms and villages—Jochem van Bruggen and Jan van Melle. The two foremost Romantic novelists were D.F. Malherbe, who wrote numerous prolix narratives on Biblical themes and South African pioneering history; and C.M. van den Heever, whose work is based mostly on the Afrikaner’s conflicts in the transition from a rural to an urban society and implies a natural bond between the farmer and the soil. Toon van den Heever was the outstanding new poet of the 1920s, and his anticonformist verse foreshadowed the great upsurge of “new” Afrikaans poetry in the 1930s.
The supreme event in Afrikaans literature was the appearance of a group of talented poets, the Dertigers (“Poets of the ’30s”), begun by W.E.G. Louw with Die ryke dwaas (1934; “The Rich Fool”). This sensitive poet, with his searing conflicts between God and Eros, exemplified qualities soon to become the new generation’s hallmark. He was followed by his elder brother, N.P. van Wyk Louw, the principal creative artist and theoretician of the new movement. Van Wyk Louw achieved mastery in every form, writing the finest odes, sonnets, modern ballads, and love lyrics in Afrikaans. His dramatic monologue “Die Hond van God” (1942; “The Hound of God”) was unsurpassed in the Dutch literatures, his epic poem Raka (1941) became a classic, and in the poetry collection Tristia (1962) he mourned the exile of the individual searching for signs of God in earthly existence.
Another poet of the 1930s was Elisabeth Eybers, whose verse dealt initially with the intimate confessions of women but broadened out to a penetrating, objective approach to love, exile, old age, and the poetical craft. Besides writing vivid romantic poetry, Uys Krige was also a short-story writer and playwright and a fine translator from the Romance languages. The poet D.J. Opperman came into prominence in 1945. His technique superimposes different historical levels intermingled with a fascinating mosaic of themes, images, and allusions from both Africa and a common Western heritage. Ernst van Heerden, another major poet who emerged in the 1940s, veered from tightly structured, rather impersonal verse to freer forms expressive of human vulnerability. Of the poets writing in the vernacular of the Cape Coloureds, Adam Small was the most talented.
By mid-century Afrikaans was changing from an essentially pastoral language to an urban one, expressing the frustrations and stresses of the city dweller. Among the new writers were the poet Peter Blum and the short-story writer Jan Rabie. They were followed by the Sestigers (“Writers of the ’60s”), a disparate group of writers loosely united by their interest in formal experimentation, their existential view of life, and their dissatisfaction with apartheid and the authoritarian character of Afrikaner society under the ruling National Party. The most important of the Sestigers were the novelists Etienne Leroux and André P. Brink and the poet Breyten Breytenbach. In a series of thematically linked novels published in the 1960s, Leroux explored the dilemma of modern Afrikaners in search of a myth, the inexhaustible fantasy and satire of his work making it unique in Afrikaans. In the 1970s Brink wrote a series of novels depicting the evils and injustices of apartheid. As the most important poet of the 1960s, Breytenbach combined surrealism and Zen Buddhism in free verse packed with original imagery. And finally, in the 1960s the short story emerged as an important genre in Afrikaans with the works of Chris Barnard, Abraham H. de Vries, and Hennie Aucamp.
The apartheid system and its tensions and moral failures continued to be explored in Afrikaans literature after the 1960s. Two impressive documentary novels were Elsa Joubert’s Die swerfjare van Poppie Nongena (1978; “The Long Journey of Poppie Nongena”), which records the experiences of an Afrikaans-speaking black woman up to 1976; and John Miles’s Kroniek uit die doofpot (1991; “Chronicle From the Wastepaper Basket”), a novel about a political assassination. Etienne van Heerden’s Toorberg (1986; “The Magic Mountain”) is at once a family novel, an exercise in magic realism, and an allegory of South African history. In Karel Schoeman’s masterpiece, ’n Ander land (1984; “Another Country”), the melancholy experience of individual desolation is combined with a probing depiction of South African political realities.
Afrikaans poets of note since the 1960s have been mostly women: Wilma Stockenström, who displays impressive technical abilities in bleak depictions of desolate landscapes and personal alienation; Sheila Cussons, who describes in her poetry the transcendence of human suffering through Roman Catholic mysticism; and Antjie Krog, whose search for an individual language within tradition is recorded in Lady Anne (1989).
Afrikaans drama lagged behind poetry and prose. In the 1960s and ’80s there were upsurges of playwriting by younger authors—notably by Bartho Smit, André P. Brink, and Pieter Fourie—but the most impressive achievements in the genre probably remain N.P. van Wyk Louw’s Germanicus (1956) and Opperman’s Periandros van Korinthe (1954), both of which make use of classical themes.
