Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq

Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (born 699/700 or 702/703, Medina, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia]—died 765, Medina) was the sixth imam, or spiritual successor to the Prophet Muhammad, of the Shiʿi branch of Islam and the last to be recognized as imam by all the Shiʿi sects. Theologically, he advocated a limited predestination and proclaimed that Hadith (traditional sayings of the Prophet), if contrary to the Qurʾān, should be rejected.

Jaʿfar was the son of Muḥammad al-Bāqir, the fifth imam, and great-grandson of the fourth caliph, ʿAlī, who is considered to have been the first imam and founder of Shiʿi. On his mother’s side, Jaʿfar was descended from the first caliph, Abū Bakr, whom Shiʿis usually consider a usurper. This may explain why he would never tolerate criticism of the first two caliphs.

There is some doubt whether the Shiʿi conception of an infallible religious leader, or imam, was really formulated before the 10th century, except possibly in some sort of “underground movement.” But the Shiʿah certainly felt that the political leadership of Islam exercised by the caliph should belong to the direct descendants of ʿAlī. Moreover, this political leadership was not clearly separated from religious leadership, and, to the end of the Umayyad regime, the caliphs sometimes preached in the mosque, using the sermon to reinforce their authority. Consequently, after his father’s death, sometime between 731 and 743, Jaʿfar became a possible claimant to the caliphate and a potential danger to the Umayyads.

The Umayyad regime was already threatened by other hostile elements, including the Iranians, who resented Arab domination. The spread of Shiʿism throughout Iran from a mixture of religious, racial, and political motives compounded the opposition. The successful revolt of 749–750 that overthrew the Umayyads, however, was under the leadership of the Abbasid family, descended from one of the Prophet’s uncles, and they, not the family of ʿAlī, founded the new ruling dynasty.

The new caliphs were, understandably, worried about Jaʿfar. Al-Manṣūr (reigned 754–775) wanted him in his new capital, Baghdad, where he could keep an eye on him. Jaʿfar preferred to stay in Medina and reportedly justified this by quoting a saying he ascribed to the Prophet that, though the man who leaves home to make a career may achieve success, he who remains at home will live longer. After the defeat and death of the ʿAlid rebel Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh in 762, however, Jaʿfar thought it prudent to obey the caliph’s summons to Baghdad. After a short stay, however, he convinced al-Manṣūr that he was no threat and was allowed to return to Medina, where he died.

A just assessment of Jaʿfar is made difficult by later Shiʿi accounts, which depict every imam as a sort of superman. He undoubtedly was both politically astute and intellectually gifted, keeping out of politics and not openly claiming the imamate. He gathered around him learned pupils including Abū Ḥanīfah and Mālik ibn Anas, founders of two of the four recognized Islamic legal schools, the Ḥanafiyyah and Mālikiyyah, and Wāṣil ibn ʿAtaʾ, founder of the Muʿtazilī school. Equally famous was Jābir ibn Hayyān, the alchemist known in Europe as Geber, who credited Jaʿfar with many of his scientific ideas and indeed suggested that some of his works are little more than records of Jaʿfar’s teaching or summaries of hundreds of monographs written by him. As to the manuscripts of half a dozen religious works bearing Jaʿfar’s name, scholars generally regard them as spurious. It seems likely that he was a teacher who left writing to others.

Various Muslim writers have ascribed three fundamental religious ideas to him. First, he adopted a middle road about the question of predestination, asserting that God decreed some things absolutely but left others to human agency—a compromise that was widely adopted. Second, in the science of Hadith, he proclaimed the principle that what was contrary to the Qurʾān (Islamic scripture) should be rejected, whatever other evidence might support it. Third, he described Muhammad’s prophetic mission as a ray of light, created before Adam and passed on from Muhammad to his descendants.

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Shiʿi divisions date from Jaʿfar’s death. His eldest son, Ismāʿīl, predeceased him, but the “Seveners,” represented today chiefly by the Ismāʿīliyyah (followers of Ismāʿīl)—argued that Ismāʿīl merely disappeared and would reappear one day. Three other sons also claimed the imamate; of these, Mūsā al-Kāẓim gained widest recognition. Shiʿi sects not recognizing Ismāʿīl are mostly known as “Twelvers”; they trace the succession from Jaʿfar to the 12th imam, who disappeared and is expected to return at the Last Judgment.