Massive street protests greeted the attempt to dissolve the National Assembly, and they continued in early April when it was announced that Capriles had been banned from holding public office for 15 years. Over the coming weeks, those protests became an almost daily occurrence, as did violent clashes between demonstrators and security forces. By early June more than 60 individuals had been killed and more than 1,200 people had been injured in the clashes, the victims including both members of the opposition and Maduro supporters as well as members of the security forces and bystanders.

Maduro continued to characterize the protests as an attempted coup fostered by a U.S.-supported capitalist conspiracy. In May 2017 he announced his intention to convene a constituent assembly to draft a new constitution, which he pledged would be submitted to a consultative referendum. In announcing these steps, Maduro said, “I convoke the original constituent power to achieve the peace needed by the Republic, defeat the fascist coup, and let the sovereign people impose peace, harmony and true national dialogue.” Opponents saw Maduro’s action as an attempt to further consolidate authoritarian power and delay already postponed regional elections as well as the presidential contest scheduled for December 2018.

They responded by holding an unofficial plebiscite on July 16, 2017, that addressed three issues: whether voters rejected the proposed constituent assembly; whether they desired the armed forces to uphold the constitution; and whether they wanted elections to be held before the official end of Maduro’s term. Of the roughly 7.2 million Venezuelans whom organizers claimed had voted, some 98 percent indicated that they rejected the constituent assembly, wanted the military to defend the constitution, and desired early elections. Maduro characterized the plebiscite as unconstitutional, encouraged participation in the election for the constituent assembly, and called on the opposition to “return to peace, to respect for the constitution, to sit and talk.”

In the event, at least 10 people were killed in the violent protests that broke out across the country as the opposition boycotted the election of the constituent assembly. Maduro hailed the selection of the assembly’s 545 members as “a vote for the revolution,” but the legitimacy of the election was widely questioned. The United States reacted by imposing a freeze on Maduro’s assets, making him the fourth sitting head of state that the U.S. government had personally targeted with economic sanctions. Two days after the election, opposition leaders Leopoldo López and Antonio Ledezma were taken from their homes in the middle of the night by state security agents. The two had been under house arrest for their alleged connection to antigovernment protests in 2014, but the Maduro-backed Supreme Court ordered their rearrest, spurring a fresh wave of international condemnation. In its first session, the new assembly indicated its intention to undertake more than the drafting of a new constitution when it voted unanimously to dismiss Attorney General Luisa Ortega, who had openly broken with Maduro to oppose the assembly’s creation and indicated that she would investigate fraud allegations related to the election.

In October 2017, gubernatorial elections (originally scheduled for December 2016) were held in Venezuela’s 23 states. The PUV confounded preelection preference polling and captured 18 of the governorships. Although the opposition alleged that there had been widespread ballot manipulation, the Maduro-friendly election commission pronounced the elections clean, and Maduro hailed the outcome as a victory for chavismo. Moreover, after initially refusing Maduro’s requirement that they pledge allegiance to the constituent assembly, four successful opposition candidates bowed to his will.

Maduro continued to blame the United States for the disastrous state of Venezuela’s economy in 2018. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), GDP had declined by 14 percent in 2017. Shortages of food and medicine were rampant. In early 2018 inflation had skyrocketed to 2,400 percent, and the IMF predicted that inflation might reach 13,000 percent by year’s end. By October the IMF had revised that prediction to 1.37 million percent. With the threat of malnutrition growing, the exodus of Venezuelans to Colombia, Brazil, and other countries had reached some 5,000 persons per day.

In an attempt to overcome the economic sanctions now imposed by Europe as well as by the United States, Maduro’s government, in February 2018, introduced a Bitcoin-like cryptocurrency, the petro, its value being linked to the price of one barrel of Venezuelan crude oil. Although Maduro claimed that the first-day sales of the petro totaled some $735 million, skeptics saw the digital currency’s creation as a desperate measure. Seeking to limit the opposition’s ability to mount an effective challenge to his rule, Maduro pushed for the presidential election that was scheduled for December to be moved up. He already had the advantage that most popular opposition leaders were either barred from running for office or incarcerated.