The most obvious aspect of Rembrandt’s late style is that the brushwork is, in general, broader. Individual brushstrokes sometimes remain visible, although the differentiation in the brushwork is extraordinary. Another aspect of the late style is that the brushwork, on whatever scale applied, seems to be governed much more by chance than before. Specifically referring to Rembrandt’s late style, Sir Joshua Reynolds observed, in the 12th of his lectures published as Discourses on Art: “Work produced in an accidental manner, will have the same free, unrestrained air as the works of nature, whose particular combinations seem to depend upon accident.”

This freedom of the hand, however, does not lead to gratuitous sketchiness. The mysterious quality of Rembrandt’s later work is that the intensity of observation and the painterly execution seem only to have grown, compared to his earlier work. But whereas the brushwork is livelier, the figures in Rembrandt’s later works are characterized by a remarkable stillness. In the early Rembrandt works, each gesture, each movement of the bodies was typified by the naetuereelste beweechgelickheijt (“the most natural liveliness”), fulfilling Rembrandt’s aim to create convincing “drama.” Despite the near absence of gesture in his late work, however, the viewer senses that the image is not frozen but rather potentially dynamic. It may well be that the figures seem to be alive because of the vitality of the execution as well as the blurring of the forms that results from an “open” treatment of contours. No doubt it is the vitality of either the brushwork in the paintings or the line in the etchings and the drawings that contributes to this feeling of a continuous state of transition.

In all this, light plays a new role, different from the role it played in the early works. From early on, one of Rembrandt’s major concerns was the creation of a hierarchy in light intensity within a painting. In the works of the 1650s and ’60s, this logic seems to develop a magic quality as well. Whereas in the early works strong local light effects prevail, in the later works the space seems to be filled with light lingering around the figures. An example is the seemingly illogical way in which the light radiates from the bust of Homer in the Aristotle of 1653. The same phenomenon is evident in the figure of Jakob in Jakob’s Blessing (1656) and in the Conspiracy of the Batavians (1661). The light reflecting in the space around some of the figures seems to act as a mysterious aura.

Domestic turmoil

A number of events in Rembrandt’s domestic life during the 1640s point to a crisis of another kind. A large number of documents have survived concerning marriage, childbirth, and Saskia’s death, as well as the tensions between Saskia’s family and Rembrandt over matters of inheritance after her death. A considerable volume of archival material also documents Rembrandt’s legal problems with a woman by the name of Geertje Dirckx, who after Saskia’s death nursed Rembrandt’s only surviving child, Titus. Rembrandt must have gotten entangled in an intimate relationship with Dirckx, who had become his housekeeper. In 1649 Dirckx said that Rembrandt had promised to marry her. In that same year the situation came to a climax when she pawned some of the jewelry that was part of Saskia’s inheritance to Titus; she claimed to have received it as a present from Rembrandt. In 1650 Rembrandt arranged for Dirckx’s confinement in the House of Correction (Spinhuis) at Gouda; she remained there until 1655.

In 1649 Hendrickje Stoffels, a young woman from Breedevoort in the eastern part of Gelderland, succeeded Dirckx, first in the function of housekeeper, later in Rembrandt’s affection. The problems associated with Titus’s inheritance prevented Rembrandt from marrying the young Stoffels, who bore him a child and lived with him as his common-law wife from 1649 until her death in 1663.

Despite the artistic crisis of the 1640s, Rembrandt’s fame certainly had not waned. Between 1652 and 1663 he sold several paintings to the nobleman Don Antonio Ruffo, from Messina in Sicily. It is clear from the correspondence concerning these commissions that Rembrandt’s art, especially his etching work, was highly esteemed in Italy. Since Ruffo must have bought the first of these paintings, the famous Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, without knowing its subject, it must surely have been mainly Rembrandt’s fame that attracted him. Van Hoogstraten in his book on painting refers to “name-buyers,” a phenomenon that apparently grew parallel to the emergence of the art lover. Once Ruffo was aware of the subject of his painting, he subsequently ordered an Alexander the Great (1662; lost in a fire) as a companion piece and a Homer Dictating to His Scribes (1662/63), which, though heavily damaged—probably in the same fire—is preserved in the Mauritshuis in The Hague.

Despite this fame, in the first half of the 1650s Rembrandt increasingly incurred financial problems, brought on to a considerable extent by his own financial mismanagement. He had neglected to pay off the debt on the house he had bought in 1639. On top of that, he had not received or accepted portrait commissions since 1642. Calculations show that the sums he spent on his collection (see below) up to the year 1656, when he finally went bankrupt, would have been more than adequate to pay off the loan he had taken out to purchase his house.

Rembrandt’s collecting

Already in his Leiden period, Rembrandt may have started to build what was to become a richly varied personal collection. From 1628 onward his works exhibit carefully depicted ethnographic and other objects. In that period Rembrandt may have begun to assemble a collection of both naturalia (natural objects such as shells and coral) and artificialia (man-made objects such as medals, plaster casts from busts of Greek philosophers and Roman emperors, weapons, and musical instruments from a variety of cultures). This collection also contained numerous prints and paintings by other artists or after their works and, among other items, a number of Mughal miniatures. The size and scope of this collection is known from the inventory of Rembrandt’s possessions drawn up in 1656 when, along with the house, the entire collection had to be auctioned in a vain effort to meet the demands of his creditors. (A reconstruction of Rembrandt’s collection—as it may have existed about 1650 and arranged in the way Rembrandt kept it in his kunstkamer [“art room”]—can be seen in the Rembrandt House Museum in Amsterdam.)

The functional significance of this collection for Rembrandt is still not entirely clear. Was it just a varied range of studio props or an accumulation of precious objects for trade? (It is known that Rembrandt was also active as an art dealer.) Or was it perhaps an encyclopaedic collection of the type that might enable the miller’s son to move in higher circles as a gentleman virtuoso? As to the collection of prints and paintings, this must have been the source of Rembrandt’s considerable art-historical knowledge, which at times became manifest in his own works. It is hard to escape the impression that, for Rembrandt, collecting must have been virtually an addiction. Having sold his house and moved to a much smaller rented house, Rembrandt soon began to collect again. By the time of his death, two rooms of that house had been filled with this new collection.

But was he really ruined only by his collecting mania and his financial mismanagement concerning his house? The historical context provides another clue to his bankruptcy: it occurred at a time when many other artists went bankrupt and when other sorts of business concerns also ran into financial difficulties. It transpires that this wave of insolvencies coincided with or followed the first Anglo-Dutch War (1652–54), when a blockade of the Dutch coast dealt a severe blow to the country’s trade with the East. There is evidence that it was precisely the manufacturers of luxury goods—and Rembrandt’s expensive paintings can certainly be included in this category—who suffered most as a result. This general financial malaise caused by the blockade led creditors to call in their debts. The documentary evidence suggests that it was this effect of the war that was fatal for Rembrandt.