Thomas Cromwell

Thomas Cromwell (born c. 1485, Putney, near London—died July 28, 1540, probably London) was the principal adviser (1532–40) to England’s Henry VIII, chiefly responsible for establishing the Reformation in England, for the dissolution of the monasteries, and for strengthening the royal administration. At the instigation of his enemies, he was eventually arrested for heresy and treason and executed.

Rise to power

Cromwell’s early life is obscure. It appears that he went abroad at an early age and spent some time in Italy. For several years after 1510 he was resident in the Low Countries, and he seems to have been closely connected with the London Merchant Adventurers. By 1520 he had entered Thomas Cardinal Wolsey’s service as his solicitor, and from that time his career is well documented. Wolsey employed him in 1525 in the dissolution of some lesser monasteries, in which work he earned a good deal of dislike. The cardinal, however, continued to favour him, and Cromwell soon became his confidential adviser.

When Wolsey fell into disgrace in 1529, Cromwell entered Parliament, where his remarkable ability attracted the notice of the king. For nearly three years he worked his way up in the royal favour, entering Henry’s service early in 1530. He was sworn into the council toward the end of that year and reached the inner circle of confidential advisers a year later. All the time, he was establishing his ascendancy in the House of Commons. In 1532 he obtained office as master of the jewels. Other offices soon followed: principal secretary and master of the rolls in 1534 and lord privy seal in 1536. The last office was combined with a peerage, and he took the title of Lord Cromwell of Wimbledon.

Cromwell and the Reformation

Cromwell’s part in the English Reformation has been much debated. At one time he was credited with supplying Henry with a complete plan of action as early as 1529; later it became usual to see in him nothing but the king’s most competent executive agent. The truth seems to be that he was in no way in charge until early in 1532, taking over when the king’s policy of forcing the pope to come to terms had proved to be a failure. It was, to all appearances, Cromwell who then came forward with a clear notion of how to achieve Henry’s purpose without the pope. His policy consisted in making a reality of some large and vague claims to supreme power that Henry had uttered at intervals. He proposed to destroy Rome’s power in England and to replace it by the royal supremacy in the church. He was behind the first attacks on the papacy (1532) and the act against the payment by bishops of their first year’s revenue to Rome. He secured the submission of the clergy to the king in matters of legislation, and in 1533 he secured the passage of the Act in Restraint of Appeals to Rome, preventing appeals to Rome in matrimonial and testamentary cases. Its preamble embodied his political theory of the sovereign national state. Thereafter he was in complete control of the government, though he remained careful to pretend to be acting on the king’s authority. In 1534 he completed the erection of the royal supremacy with the passage of the Act of Supremacy.

Because political and financial reasons made expedient an attack on the monasteries, Cromwell was appointed the king’s vicar general with powers to visit and reform all monastic institutions. Despite serious opposition, especially in the north, the task was carried out relentlessly. During 1536–40 the surrender of the greater houses was obtained by pressure and persuasion, and by 1540 all monastic institutions had ceased to exist and their property had been vested in the crown. Cromwell and other crown officials obtained valuable grants as rewards, but, while the minister lived, the new wealth was not squandered.

In 1536, as a newly created baron, Cromwell was also appointed the king’s deputy as head of the church. Cromwell’s own religious views have been in much doubt. They certainly were not very strong, and his essentially secular temper subordinated religious to political considerations. Nevertheless, he came to be firmly associated with a radical policy of reform and Reformation. In the main, this resulted from difficulties abroad. While hostility between France and Spain had prevented foreign intervention during the critical years of the Reformation, 1533–36, there seemed a danger of an alliance against England after that date. Cromwell, whose forthright and clear-sighted temper was less well suited to the conduct of foreign affairs than was Henry VIII’s skillful opportunism, involved himself in projects of a Lutheran alliance distasteful to the king, who wished to stand on Catholic orthodoxy.

In 1539 Cromwell made the mistake of trying to force the king to his side by compelling him to marry Anne of Cleves. The king from the start hated his fourth wife, and by February 1540 it was clear that the alliance with the German princes that she represented was unnecessary. Thereafter, Cromwell’s fall came quickly. He fought back for a few months, being created earl of Essex and lord great chamberlain in April 1540, but early in June his enemies persuaded Henry that his vicegerent was a heretic and a traitor. He was arrested on June 10, condemned without a hearing, and executed on July 28. His fall did not end the Reformation, but it marked the end of competent government and purposeful policy in Henry’s reign.

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Legacy

The basis of Cromwell’s thought was the notion of the sovereign national state that in practice he established by the expulsion of the papacy. In his conception of the English state and monarchy, his central idea was that of the supremacy and omnipotence of statute, or (as it came to be called) the legislative sovereignty of the king in Parliament. In other words, he wanted to establish unlimited sovereignty in the hands of a monarchy limited by dependence on consent. His work in Parliament—managing elections, drafting statutes, piloting legislation—makes him the first of a long line of English parliamentary statesmen. He also demonstrated his awareness of the need to provide practical management of a new kind. No minister before him had exercised such pervasive influence over every detail of administration. Cromwell began, and to a large extent carried through, a reconstruction that replaced administration by the king’s household with a national administration divorced from the person of the king and dependent on civil service departments. This aspect of his work endured, through many reforms, until the great changes of the 19th century.