Battles of Trenton and Princeton

Battles of Trenton and Princeton, (1776–77), in the American Revolution, a series of engagements won by the Continental Army against Hessian and British forces in New Jersey. The battles occurred over a span of nine days (December 26, 1776–January 3, 1777) and are notable as the first successes won by the Revolutionary general George Washington in the open field. The victories restored American morale and renewed confidence in Washington.

The British campaign of 1776

The opening year of the American Revolution, which included the capture of Fort Ticonderoga, an ill-fated invasion of Canada, and the prosecution of the Siege of Boston, was partly favorable to the nascent Continental Army, but those events largely served as a prelude to the real struggle to come. For the campaign of 1776, both the British and the Americans had made extensive preparations. In London, the purely military problem, although assuming larger dimensions and more difficulties, still seemed to require a simple solution: namely, to strike hard where the rebellion was most active and capable of the longest resistance. Defeated there, it was reasoned, the Revolution would quickly dissipate in all quarters.

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As more than one-half of the population and resources of the colonists lay north of Chesapeake Bay—New England alone had an estimated population of over 700,000—it was only a question of which point in this area should be made the future base of operations. Largely upon the recommendations of British commander in chief Gen. William Howe, Maj. Gen. John Burgoyne, and others, it was determined to shift the field from Boston to New York City. From there British forces would hold the line of the Hudson River while a force under Sir Guy Carleton and Burgoyne moved down from Canada, thus effectually isolating New England.

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Under this plan the new British campaign opened in June 1776. Howe, heavily reinforced from home, sailed on June 10 from Halifax, Nova Scotia, to New York and on July 5 encamped on Staten Island. Washington, anticipating this move, had already marched from Boston and fortified the city. His left flank stretched across the East River beyond Brooklyn, while his front and right flanks on the harbor and on the Hudson River were vulnerable to a combined naval and land attack. The position was especially precarious because the British maintained near-absolute control of the waters about Manhattan.

On August 22 Howe crossed the narrows to the Long Island shore with 15,000 troops, increasing the number to 20,000 on August 25, and on August 27 surprised the Americans, shattering their defenses and inflicting a loss of about 1,400 men. Howe has been criticized, rightly or wrongly, for failing to make full use of this victory. Instead of immediately pressing his attack against the strained American defenders, Howe paused to gather his forces for a final assault. Washington used the delay to evacuate his Brooklyn lines on the night of August 29, somewhat relieving the depression that the defeat had produced in his army.

On September 15 Howe crossed the East River above Lower Manhattan, landing at Kip’s Bay. He captured more than 300 of the militiamen who were defending the lines and occupied New York City. The Americans had decided to abandon the city several days earlier, but Howe arrived before the evacuation could be completed. Once again, Howe paused to consolidate his forces, a delay that allowed several thousand men under Gen. Israel Putnam to slip away. Washington had already withdrawn his main army to Upper Manhattan, and British skirmishers met the retreating Continentals the next day, west of what is now Columbia University. The engagement, which came to be known as the Battle of Harlem Heights, cost the British perhaps 90 of their light infantry, with an additional 300 wounded. The temporary check to the British advance provided a much-needed reprieve to the reeling Americans.

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Waiting nearly a month to resume the offensive, on October 12 Howe moved by water into Westchester county. Marching toward White Plains, Howe forced another retreat on Washington. In the fight on Chatterton Hill at White Plains on October 28, an American brigade was defeated.

Instead of pressing the Americans further, Howe then returned to Manhattan. Washington had left large garrisons at Fort Washington and Fort Lee, two strongpoints overlooking the Hudson River (where the George Washington Bridge now stands). On November 16 Howe took Fort Washington (on the Manhattan side), capturing nearly 3,000 prisoners as well as valuable cannons and supplies. This loss was the heaviest blow to the Americans throughout the war in the north. British forces under Lord Charles Cornwallis then took Fort Lee (on the New Jersey side) and on November 24 began to drive the Americans across New Jersey. Although Washington was able to escape to Pennsylvania on the west bank of the Delaware River, his army had been badly beaten. Declaring that he needed only to wait for the river to freeze over before he could “catch Washington and end the war,” Howe went into winter quarters, leaving Hessian Col. Johann Rall at Trenton, New Jersey, with about 1,400 men.

Washington crosses the Delaware

The fledgling American government was in a panic, and the members of the Continental Congress fled Philadelphia for Baltimore, Maryland. So desperate was the situation that, on December 19, 1776, Thomas Paine published the pamphlet The American Crisis. Number I, in which he declared:

These are the times that try men’s souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country; but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us—that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph.

Although Washington’s Continental Army was discouraged by the year’s disasters, its morale was not crushed, and it now numbered 6,000 troops. The enlistment terms for many of these men were near an end, however, and Washington knew that his window of action was rapidly closing. Ascertaining that Rall’s Hessians were virtually unsupported, Washington determined to attempt their capture. The Hessian force was exhausted and demoralized from near-constant raids by local militiamen, and, although warned of a possible assault by Continental forces, Rall believed that harsh winter weather would preclude any serious attack.

The Battle of Trenton

Washington had planned to cross the Delaware River in the early evening hours of December 25, 1776, with the bulk of his army in three separate groups. Col. John Cadwalader was to lead a force of some 1,800 Philadelphia militiamen and Continental troops in an attack on Burlington, New Jersey, south of Trenton, to ensure that the British garrison there could not reinforce the Hessians. Brig. Gen. James Ewing, at the head of nearly 1,000 Pennsylvania militiamen, was to capture the bridge across Assunpink Creek to block the Hessians’ most likely escape route. Washington’s force of some 2,400 Continentals would cross the Delaware 10 miles (16 km) upstream and march south to assault the Trenton garrison.

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Carrying out a nighttime amphibious operation on an ice-choked river in the face of a powerful nor’easter was a daunting prospect, and the forces under Cadwalader and Ewing were unable to make the crossing. Washington’s assault group, however, included Col. John Glover’s 14th Continentals, the so-called “Marblehead regiment” that had proved instrumental in amphibious operations during the New York campaign. Glover’s Massachusetts men expertly handled the Durham boats (shallow-draft freight vessels) that Washington had procured to transport his army. Although they arrived several hours behind schedule, Washington’s men completed the hazardous crossing. They were accompanied by a substantial artillery train under the command of Col. Henry Knox. Once on New Jersey soil, Washington divided his command. One column, under Maj. Gen. John Sullivan, would approach Trenton from the west, while the second, under Maj. Gen. Nathanael Greene, would attack from the north. They began their march south about 4:00 am, navigating the predawn darkness and blinding snow.

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Washington’s two columns arrived on the outskirts of Trenton about 8:00 am, and their audacious attack took the garrison completely by surprise. Knox’s guns poured shot into the avenues surrounding the barracks, while Washington’s infantry engaged the disconcerted Hessians in close-quarters combat. Rall led his men in a fighting retreat until he was struck down by an American bullet. Leaderless, the remaining men of the Trenton garrison threw down their weapons and surrendered. The Americans captured 900 prisoners as well as a sizable store of guns and ammunition. More than 20 Hessians, including the mortally wounded Rall, were killed, and some 80 were wounded. No Americans were killed in action, and just five were wounded. The most serious American casualty was 18-year-old Lieut. James Monroe, who suffered a near-fatal shoulder wound. Monroe recovered, was promoted to captain for his bravery at Trenton, and ultimately went on to become the fifth president of the United States (1817–25). Washington gathered his exhausted men, his prisoners, and his captured supplies and recrossed the Delaware back into Pennsylvania.

The Second Battle of Trenton and the Battle of Princeton

Elated by his success and eager to capitalize on his victory, Washington promptly dispatched an advance party under Greene to occupy Trenton. On December 30, 1776, Washington once again crossed the Delaware with the main body of his army and established his headquarters in the southern part of the city, near the Assunpink bridge. Cornwallis was at Princeton, New Jersey, some 10 miles (16 km) northeast of Trenton, and upon hearing of Washington’s move he set out to confront the Continentals. Cornwallis approached Trenton with about 7,000 troops on January 2, 1777, but his advance was slowed by American skirmishers. The British spent most of the day on a march that should have taken three hours. Washington shifted his headquarters to a position south of the Assunpink, and, by the time Cornwallis finally arrived in Trenton, the Continentals had established a strong defensive line on the southern bank of the creek. Cornwallis was almost out of daylight, and he hastily launched a series of attacks on Washington’s lines. The Assunpink bridge became a killing ground for Washington’s sharpshooters and artillery, and, although the Continentals were bloodied, their lines remained unbroken at nightfall. Continental losses were light, but it was estimated that as many as 150 British and Hessian soldiers were killed in the Second Battle of Trenton, making this engagement by far the deadlier of the two battles on that site.

Washington knew that his army was in a precarious position. He had no boats at his disposal to recross the Delaware back to Pennsylvania. The British blocked the major roads to the northeast, and a retreat south toward Philadelphia would surrender much of the initiative that had been gained over the previous days. Anticipating an attack by Cornwallis in the morning, Washington convened a council of war with his lieutenants. He told them of a bold plan to break camp quietly that night and march on the British reserve force at Princeton. Leaving a token force to keep his campfires burning through the night, Washington stole a march on Cornwallis and led his army along a small unguarded byroad through the British lines.

The Continentals reached the outskirts of Princeton the following morning (January 3, 1777), and about 8:30 am British skirmishers engaged an advance force under Brig. Gen. Hugh Mercer. The British, under Col. Charles Mawhood, temporarily held the numerical advantage, and they shattered Mercer’s brigade with a bayonet charge that left Mercer mortally wounded. With the American line on the verge of breaking, Washington himself led an audacious counterattack, reportedly rallying his men with the cry, “It is a fine fox chase, my boys!” as Mawhood’s regiments broke ranks and fled. When a contingent of British troops made a stand at Nassau Hall on the campus of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), artillery captain Alexander Hamilton directed a barrage at them. The British promptly surrendered, but the claim that one Hamilton’s shots destroyed a portrait of King George II that was hanging inside the building is likely apocryphal. The day’s casualties were fairly light, both sides suffering perhaps two dozen killed and twice that wounded; nearly 200 British soldiers were captured, however.

Aftermath and significance

Having flushed the British from Princeton, Washington looted their baggage train and continued his march to Morristown, New Jersey, where he went into winter quarters on January 6. In addition to succeeding in breaking through Howe’s lines, Washington had placed himself in an advantageous position for recruiting additional men to his army and maintaining a strong defense for the campaign of 1777. With Washington securely established in northern New Jersey and less than a three-day march from New York, Cornwallis abandoned Trenton and retired to New Brunswick, New Jersey.

The effect of the American victories at Trenton and Princeton was marked. Following close upon a string of demoralizing defeats, the victories put new life into the American cause and renewed confidence in Washington as a commander. The engagements also strengthened the claim of American independence, which had been declared on July 4, 1776. Although the war would continue for nearly six more years, Washington’s nine-day campaign in the winter of 1776–77 conclusively demonstrated that the Continental Army could fight and win against seasoned British troops.