projective geometry

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Projective drawingThe sight lines drawn from the image in the reality plane (RP) to the artist's eye intersect the picture plane (PP) to form a projective, or perspective, drawing. The horizontal line drawn parallel to PP corresponds to the horizon. Early perspective experimenters sometimes used translucent paper or glass for the picture plane, which they drew on while looking through a small hole to keep their focus steady.

Fundamental theorem of similarity

Projective version of the fundamental theorem of similarityIn RP, Euclid's fundamental theorem of similarity states that CD/DA = CE/EB. By introducing a scaling factor, the theorem can be saved in RP as C′D′/D′A′ = C′E′/E′B′ ∙ ΩB′/ΩA′. Note that while lines AB and DE are parallel in RP, their projections onto PP intersect at the infinitely distant horizon (Ω).

Pappus's projective theoremPappus of Alexandria (fl. ad 320) proved that the three points (x, y, z) formed by intersecting the six lines that connect two sets of three collinear points (A, B, C; and D, E, F) are also collinear.

Pascal's projective theoremThe 17th-century French mathematician Blaise Pascal proved that the three points (x, y, z) formed by intersecting the six lines that connect any six distinct points (A, B, C, D, E, F) on a circle are collinear.

Cross ratioAlthough distances and ratios of distances are not preserved under projection, the cross ratio, defined as AC/BC ∙ BD/AD, is preserved. That is, AC/BC ∙ BD/AD = A′C′/B′C′ ∙ B′D′/A′D′.

Projective conic sectionsThe conic sections (ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola) can be generated by projecting the circle formed by the intersection of a cone with a plane (the reality plane, or RP) perpendicular to the cone's central axis. The image of the circle is projected onto a plane (the projective plane, or PP) that is oriented at the same angle as the cutting plane (Ω) passing through the apex (“eye”) of the double cone. In this example, the orientation of Ω produces an ellipse in PP.

Figure 9: Use of auxiliary view to show true size and shape of an inclined surface (ABCD), which is not correctly represented in the front, top, or side view (see text).

Figure 1: Two techniques of representing an object. (A) Perspective drawing, suggesting that the object is cubical. (B) Orthographic top and front views, revealing that the object is not cubical.

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Photos

Projective drawingThe sight lines drawn from the image in the reality plane (RP) to the artist's eye intersect the picture plane (PP) to form a projective, or perspective, drawing. The horizontal line drawn parallel to PP corresponds to the horizon. Early perspective experimenters sometimes used translucent paper or glass for the picture plane, which they drew on while looking through a small hole to keep their focus steady.

Fundamental theorem of similarity

Projective version of the fundamental theorem of similarityIn RP, Euclid's fundamental theorem of similarity states that CD/DA = CE/EB. By introducing a scaling factor, the theorem can be saved in RP as C′D′/D′A′ = C′E′/E′B′ ∙ ΩB′/ΩA′. Note that while lines AB and DE are parallel in RP, their projections onto PP intersect at the infinitely distant horizon (Ω).

Pappus's projective theoremPappus of Alexandria (fl. ad 320) proved that the three points (x, y, z) formed by intersecting the six lines that connect two sets of three collinear points (A, B, C; and D, E, F) are also collinear.

Pascal's projective theoremThe 17th-century French mathematician Blaise Pascal proved that the three points (x, y, z) formed by intersecting the six lines that connect any six distinct points (A, B, C, D, E, F) on a circle are collinear.

Cross ratioAlthough distances and ratios of distances are not preserved under projection, the cross ratio, defined as AC/BC ∙ BD/AD, is preserved. That is, AC/BC ∙ BD/AD = A′C′/B′C′ ∙ B′D′/A′D′.

Projective conic sectionsThe conic sections (ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola) can be generated by projecting the circle formed by the intersection of a cone with a plane (the reality plane, or RP) perpendicular to the cone's central axis. The image of the circle is projected onto a plane (the projective plane, or PP) that is oriented at the same angle as the cutting plane (Ω) passing through the apex (“eye”) of the double cone. In this example, the orientation of Ω produces an ellipse in PP.

Figure 9: Use of auxiliary view to show true size and shape of an inclined surface (ABCD), which is not correctly represented in the front, top, or side view (see text).

Figure 1: Two techniques of representing an object. (A) Perspective drawing, suggesting that the object is cubical. (B) Orthographic top and front views, revealing that the object is not cubical.

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Topics

projection Desargues’s theorem harmonic construction pencil Pappus’s projective theorem Pascal’s theorem Brianchon’s theorem geometry topology Euclidean geometry analytic geometry differential geometry non-Euclidean geometry algebraic geometry catastrophe theory Pappus’s theorem Ceva’s theorem length, area, and volume

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Key People

Girard Desargues

French mathematician

Oswald Veblen

American mathematician

Steiner surface. It was during a trip to Rome in 1844 that Jakob Steiner first discovered the fourth-degree surface that today bears his name; for this reason it is sometimes referred to as the Roman surface. Each of its tangent planes has the characteristic property that it intersects the surface in a pair of conics. The Steiner surface also contains three double lines that meet one another in a triple point. Steiner never published these and other findings concerning the surface. A colleague, Karl Weierstrass, first published a paper on the surface and Steiner's results in 1863, the year of Steiner's death.

Jakob Steiner

Swiss mathematician

August Ferdinand Möbius, detail from an engraving by an unknown artist.

August Ferdinand Möbius

German mathematician and astronomer

Michel Chasles

French mathematician

Jean-Victor Poncelet, detail of a lithograph by Patout, 1849.

Jean-Victor Poncelet

French mathematician

Karl Georg Christian von Staudt

German mathematician

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