10 Frequently Confused Literary Terms

Perhaps one of the most frequently confused literary terms is irony. The history of its meaning lies in the Greek comic figure Eiron, who repeatedly relies upon his wit to prevail over his bumptious counterpart. In present day, however, the term has come to describe situations in which the actuality of an action is different from what one expects to happen (situational) or when the way in which a speaker implies a statement’s meaning starkly contrasts the meaning that is ostensibly expressed (verbal). There are varying forms of irony, but the easiest way to ascertain if something is ironic is to determine whether what actually happens differs from your expectations. For example, it is ironic when, in Stanley Kubrick’s iconic film Dr. Strangelove; or, How I learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb, President Merkin Muffley, while in a room full of military generals trying to avoid nuclear war, exclaims to two of his confrontational colleagues, “Gentlemen, you can’t fight in here! This is the War Room.”

Often mistaken for irony, the term coincidence involves a great deal of luck, or chance. Merriam-Webster defines it as “a situation in which events happen at the same time in a way that is not planned or expected.” For example, it’s a coincidence that Becky and Suzy, archrivals desperately vying for the status of prom queen, enter the ball sporting the exact same dress, whereas, it would be deemed ironic if, at the same dance, mousy outcast Jane is instead voted prom queen, thus demonstrating an entirely unexpected outcome. The bottom line to be taken away from this example is that coincidence is the occurrence of one or more events that are unexpected but, more importantly, that are completely reliant upon luck while irony describes singular events in which the outcome is the exact contrary to what one might expect.

This term’s provenance hails from Greece and literally means “change of name,” or “misnomer.” It is a descriptive figure of speech far more common in everyday speech than most are probably aware. When you hear a British citizen refer to “the crown,” you know that person to be talking about the monarch in the same way that you understand a disgruntled actor to be admonishing the entire film industry when he complains about the harsh realities of “Hollywood.” In these examples, the crown stands in for the monarch and Hollywood is substituted for the film industry as a whole. Essentially, metonymy occurs when a speaker refers to an object, person, or institution by something that is, and typically has been, closely associated with it. The overall goal of its use is to provide a genuine image in the reader or listener’s mind for generally abstract concepts.

Like metonymy, the term synecdoche also stems from Greek. It translates literally to “taking together.” Now, this is where it gets a bit sticky: synecdoche uses a part of something to stand in for a whole. But, wait a minute, isn’t that exactly what metonymy does? The answer is yes and no. Yes, in that it uses parts of, or things associated with, a whole. No, in that they are usually used for different purposes. Whereas metonymy typically provides a genuine image for an abstraction, synecdoche is a descriptive literary term that uses part of an already concrete image to refer to said image for rhetorical purposes, such as to highlight a specific feature. For example, a classic noir detective story might start, “As I sat behind my desk, thumbing through stacks of unsolved cases, in walked a pair of legs that quickly absorbed my attention.” In this case, “legs” is used to stand in for a beautiful woman, which, given the scenario, is usually evident to the reader. There is definitely some overlap between the two concepts, but, put the simplest way, synecdoche typically refers to an already concrete image used for purely poetic and rhetorical purposes.

Perhaps the most commonly used literary device, the term metaphor is defined as “an elaborate or fanciful way of expressing something,” in which that “something” can be absolutely anything from the weather (“it’s raining cats and dogs”) to the entire world, as the Bard once famously penned, “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players.” Simply put, a metaphor is a direct substitution of one concept or object for another, with the goal to draw a comparison between the two concepts or objects. The use of the metaphor forces a reader to actively engage with what is being said in order to understand in what ways the concepts are related so that he or she can see the subject in an entirely new light. Many perceive metaphors as the language of poetry, though they are not completely limited to such elevated language. They are often found in everyday speech, novels, and formal declamations in which persuasion is the speaker’s primary goal.

Another commonly used and yet confused literary device, a symbol stands for something. Symbols and metaphors are easily mixed up because both, in effect, stand in for another idea or object. However, it’s usually the case that symbols stand in for more abstract concepts or institutions and are presented in different ways than metaphors. An easy example is the flag of the United States. People see it and immediately think of the White House or Declaration of Independence, because it has come to be associated with those things in the same way that the French flag conjures images of the Eiffel Tower or the wide countryside of France. In literature, one of the best-known symbols is Hester Prynne’s scarlet “A” that she’s forced to wear throughout Nathaniel Hawthorne’s iconic novel, The Scarlet Letter. The symbol evolves through the novel and comes to stand for a plethora of concepts, first and foremost adultery and then, as Prynne’s perception of her “crime” changes, she and readers see it as a symbol for “angel.” The key point here is that metaphors swap one for one, whereas a symbol can stand in for a plethora of images and concepts that are typically abstract and have the possibility to evolve in their meanings.

Now, I know what you are thinking: Let’s “denotate” an explosive. Sure thing—explosive: “a substance (such as dynamite) that is used to cause an explosion.” Beware not to confuse denotation with detonation or, more importantly, with its sibling, connotation. A denotation is the literal or primary meaning of a word or phrase. In fact, it can be used as a glorified synonym for definition when discussing a word’s meaning. The importance of a denotation becomes apparent when analyzing an author’s specific word choice, namely when the word is foreign or new to a reader. However, knowing the strict definition of a word or the literal meaning of a phrase only goes so far. That’s where connotation comes in…

What images pop into your head when you think of a snake? Most likely the word’s denotation comes to mind and you imagine an eel-like animal slithering through a grassy plain. But that’s not all that you think of, is it? Associations with danger, fear, treachery, temptations, or sneakiness also pop into mind. That is because, along with its literal definition, the word snake has a plethora of connotations instilled in the collective mind through literary and pop culture references. Understanding and effectively utilizing a word’s connotations comes in handy for authors and salesmen alike. A poet describing a pleasant day will likely use words like “bright,” “sunny,” and “joyful” to inculcate a sense of happiness in his readers, whereas a realtor, when trying to sell houses to prospective buyers, will more often than not ask them what they think of the home, instead of using the term house, since the former has connotations of being an intimate, private, and cozy place.

If asked, most people can come up with a rather close definition for the term myth—probably something along the lines of: “a story about gods and goddesses that explains why things are what they are and happen as they do.” This is all true, but there is more to it. A myth, as viewed in classical Greece, was any story, whether true or imagined, with a plot. Clearly, today such a definition fails to hold water. It has since been narrowed down to be any story within a mythology—a system of traditional stories of ancient times that affirm cultural norms and beliefs—in which the characters and setting are thought to be of an entirely different world or breed than humans. Myths are therefore rife with metaphors, so that lessons may be drawn from them and applied to real life. Gods and goddesses fight with one another, adhering to their own hierarchies and rules. Also, it’s not uncharacteristic of a myth if the protagonist is turned into an inhuman figure, like a tree or rock.

There are few differences between a myth and a legend, and some people use them interchangeably without losing their meaning on the reader. However, since we’re nitpicking in this list, discrepancies do exist, and they should be noted for clarity’s sake. Like a myth, a legend is a traditional story that affirms current cultural customs or beliefs in a society. However, where the two differ is that, while a myth deals mainly in the fantastical realm of gods and goddesses playing cruel tricks on one another, a legend is usually set in a historical setting accompanied by key facts that give the story a certain amount of believability. Now, this doesn’t entirely rule out the occasional weaving of supernatural threads into the plots of legends. In fact, it is because of the presence of such elements that legends are decorated with historical facts. This allows them to be embraced as possible truths so their morals gain more weight in the eyes of their audiences.