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During the War of the Spanish Succession, the Ottoman Empire had remained neutral toward Austria. But the Turks had attacked the possessions of the Venetians on the Peloponnese and on the Ionian Islands. Austria tried to intervene and finally declared war. Prince Eugene defeated the Turks near the fortress of Peterwardein (Petrovaradin, now part of Novi Sad, Serbia) and conquered the strong bastion of Temesvár (now Timișoara, Romania) in 1716. In the summer campaign of 1717, Belgrade again came into the hands of the imperial troops after a battle was won against a Turkish relief army. In the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718), a frontier line was agreed upon that corresponded to the de facto situation. The Turks had to cede to the Austrians the Banat region, the Turkish part of Syrmia (Srem, now part of Vojvodina, Serbia), Walachia Minor as far as the Olt (Aluta) River, northern Serbia, Belgrade, and a strip of land along the frontier in northern Bosnia. A favourable trade agreement was also concluded.
During the Turkish war another crisis emerged. The Spanish minister Giulio Alberoni tried to initiate a policy of expansion in Italy. When Spanish troops landed in Sardinia and Sicily, the emperor formed an alliance with Great Britain and France, later joined by the Dutch Republic (the Quadruple Alliance). After the English defeated the Spanish fleet, Madrid recalled its troops from the disputed territories. Austria received the more prosperous Sicily in exchange for Sardinia, which fell to Savoy. Charles then agreed to recognize the Spanish Bourbons. The gains from the Quadruple Alliance plus those of the Treaty of Passarowitz gave the Habsburgs the largest territory they were ever to rule. Their domains were far from unified, however, with the individual provinces showing a wide national, economic, cultural, and constitutional diversity.
Trading interests soon interfered with the empire’s alliance with the maritime powers of Britain and the Dutch Republic. At first the attempts of the Ostend Company, which was backed by Charles VI, to enter into trade with India were quite successful. Because of the antipathy of the maritime powers, however, it seemed advisable to find an alternative to trade with Dutch and British colonial markets in the vast transatlantic empire of Spain. In 1725 Charles entered into an alliance with Spain, whereupon France, Great Britain, and Prussia formed a rival alliance. But soon after Russia was won over to the Habsburg cause, Prussia changed sides. As the outbreak of a European war seemed imminent, attempts were made at the Congress of Soissons to relax political tensions. Spain abruptly changed its alliances and concluded a treaty (1729) with England and France, the Dutch Republic joining later. When Russia also began to waver, Prince Eugene tried to fall back on the traditional alliance with the maritime powers. After prolonged and difficult negotiations, Britain in 1731 accepted the Pragmatic Sanction, the emperor in return giving a promise not to marry his daughter Maria Theresa, the Habsburg heiress, to a prince who was himself heir to important domains. Austria finally dissolved the Ostend Company, having already suspended its charter in 1727. Charles VI then invested a great deal of energy in his endeavours to secure the recognition and the guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction in the German diet. In this he was opposed by Bavaria and the elector of Saxony, but Austria finally obtained the guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction at the Regensburg Diet (1732).
The question of the Polish succession led to a revival of the Austrian conflict with the Bourbon countries. Austria, with Prussia and Russia, favoured Augustus III of Saxony, the son of the deceased king, whereas France backed Stanisław I (Stanisław Leszczyński). On the military intervention of Russia in Poland, the Bourbons attacked Austria. The issue came to be mixed up with the problem of Lorraine; France dreaded that, on the impending marriage of Maria Theresa to Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, the latter’s domains would be united with Austria’s, and French plans for the acquisition of Lorraine would be thwarted. France, Sardinia, and Spain simultaneously opened the war against Austria in 1733 (see Polish Succession, War of the). Prince Eugene, who was now aged, was able only to prevent a major success of the enemy on the Rhine. On the Italian front the Habsburgs fared even worse. The Battle of Parma ended undecided, but the Austrians were finally beaten near Guastalla in northern Italy. The small Austrian force that was stationed in southern Italy was unable to resist the Spanish attack, and Sicily and Naples were occupied by the Spaniards. In 1735 a Russian relieving corps reinforced the Habsburg front on the Rhine, and in northern Italy there were also a few successful operations of some local importance.
Direct contacts between Austria and France eventually led to the preliminary Peace of Vienna (October 3, 1735). Austria lost Naples and Sicily, which fell to a secondary branch of the Bourbons, and had to cede a tract of territory in Lombardy to Sardinia. As some compensation, Austria received Parma and Piacenza. Francis Stephen of Lorraine was promised Tuscany but had to renounce his hereditary duchy. On these conditions, France agreed to recognize the Pragmatic Sanction. The final peace was then concluded at Vienna in 1738.
Prince Eugene had died during the War of the Polish Succession. It soon proved disastrous that a successor of similar capacity was not found. During the second Turkish war of Charles VI (1737–39), Austria joined in the Turkish-Russian conflict but without coordination of military operations. The Austrians, furthermore, underrated the Turkish forces and were themselves reduced by epidemics. The fortress of Niš, Serbia, was taken but was lost again soon afterward. Peace negotiations conducted at Nemirov, Ukraine, were broken off, and the war went on. The Austrians lost another battle at Grocka, Serbia. Again peace negotiations were launched, in the course of which the larger part of the gains of the Peace of Passarowitz were lost. More disquieting even than the territorial losses was the loss in prestige. The epoch that had seen the rise of Austria to a great power thus ended with reverses.
Social, economic, and cultural trends in the Baroque period
The Thirty Years’ War and the Turkish wars had resulted in the devastation of large parts of the country and in great losses among the population, which suffered further reduction during the plague years of 1679 and 1713. The territories that had been wrested from the Turks had to be resettled systematically by German and other immigrants. The initiative for resettlement projects came from the official bureaucracy, the settlements being concentrated mainly in the south of Hungary. During the period of religious conflicts, many Protestants had been exiled, but, in the 18th century, Protestants often were transported to the various underpopulated parts of the empire.
In the industrial and commercial fields, mercantilist ideas, encouraged by the government, were prominent from the 1660s. The situation of the peasantry was thoroughly unfavourable. Tentative measures in the reigns of Leopold I and Charles VI to protect the peasants had little effect. Certain “model industries” (mostly textile factories) were established but were only partly successful. The economic policy of the absolutist state also resulted in strong interference with trade organizations. The guilds were suppressed or at least debarred from the new manufactures.
Trade was encouraged but yielded only small gains for the state. Industrial and commercial undertakings were managed in part directly by the state but largely through privileged corporations or private persons. Of some importance were the first (1667) and the second (1719) Oriental trading companies and the Ostend Company (1722). Trade in the Mediterranean was also intensified. Promising colonial ventures in India were discontinued for political reasons, however, in the middle of the 18th century. Under Charles VI new roads came to be planned and built on a large scale.
The state was in permanent want of money. This was a period of perpetual war as well as great economic investments, both entailing excessive strain on state finances. At first the government resorted to rich bankers such as Samuel Oppenheimer and his successor Samson Wertheimer for funds. Soon, however, it attempted to establish state-controlled banking firms. The Banco del Giro, founded in Vienna in 1703, quickly failed, but the Vienna Stadtbanco of 1705 managed to survive; the Universalbancalität of 1715 was liquidated after a short period of operation.
After the victory of the Counter-Reformation, education was almost exclusively in the hands of the Roman Catholic Church. The grammar schools of the religious orders, especially of the Jesuits and the Benedictines, set a very high standard for the most part. In 1677 another university was established at Innsbruck, the theological school of which was to acquire some fame. Historical writing flourished, the most outstanding works being those of two Benedictine brothers, Bernard and Hieronymus Pez; Gottfried Bessel, abbot of Göttweig; and Leopold I’s official historiographer, the Jesuit Franz Wagner. The Austrian Jesuits were famous for their scientific and geographic researches, most notably the exploration of China.
Among the achievements of Baroque poetry, mention should be made of Wolf Helmhart of Hohberg, whose works offer interesting insights into the life of the nobility, and of Katharina of Greiffenberg, a Protestant whose intensely spiritual poems reflected the pressures of the Counter-Reformation. The theater of the Baroque was remarkable for the splendor of its decorations and the ingenuity of its stage machinery. The plays produced ranged from the elaborate Italian opera to the blunt humor of the popular play. Music attained an especially high standard, encouraged by three emperors who were themselves composers (Ferdinand III, Leopold I, and Joseph I). Charles VI was also a skillful musician, and he engaged the services of Johann Joseph Fux, who came from eastern Steiermark and developed into an important composer and teacher.
Austrian Baroque culture is most clearly revealed by the splendors of its architecture. At first the field was dominated by the Italians, but soon native architects stepped forth. Preeminent among them was Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (whose works included the first plan of the Schloss Schönbrunn in Vienna, Karls Church in Vienna, and Kollegien Church in Salzburg) and his son Josef Emanuel Fischer von Erlach (who designed the Hof Library, in Vienna). They were rivaled by Jakob Prandtauer (whose works included monasteries in Herzogenburg and Melk) and especially by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt (who designed the Schwarzenberg and Belvedere palaces in Vienna, Peters Church in Vienna, and the monastery of Göttweig). Among native sculptors, Georg Raphael Donner was the first in rank and quality of work. Fresco painting was best represented by Johann Michael Rottmayr from Salzburg, Daniel Gran from Vienna, and Paul Troger from the Tirolean Pustertal valley. (See also Baroque period.)
Erich Zöllner Reinhold F. Wagnleitner