By 1845, when Florida was admitted to the union, only a few hundred Seminole remained in the state. The Third Seminole War (1855–58) was their final conflict with the federal government.

Slave owners in Florida led the state to secede from the United States in 1861 and join the Confederacy. During the American Civil War (1861–65), military action in the state was mostly limited to the capture of coastal cities by Union troops. Florida was occupied by the U.S. Army during Reconstruction (1865–77), to enforce equal rights for African Americans. Black Floridians collaborated with white citizens in the Republican Party, and Republicans dominated the governorship from 1868 to 1877. In 1877, however, Democrats, who were led by former Confederates, regained control of the state government. Over the next several decades they enacted legislation that disenfranchised blacks and established a system of legalized discrimination called segregation.

Until the 1880s, Florida’s economy had been dominated by small-farm and plantation agriculture; the supplying of naval stores and the production of beef and hides, pork, salt, tobacco, and cotton were the main activities. In 1881 phosphate—the state’s most important mineral—was discovered in the Peace River valley, and extensive mining began immediately. In the late 1800s the lumber industry, based in northern and western Florida, grew rapidly. At the same time, in Tampa, cigar manufacturers, originally from Cuba, began producing for the U.S. market.

Simultaneously, railroads began to promote economic development. In western Florida a railroad reached Pensacola in 1883, and in the following year Henry B. Plant finished his north-south line on the western side of the Florida peninsula as far as Tampa. Meanwhile, Plant’s counterpart on the east coast, Henry M. Flagler, was building a rail and hotel empire that would soon extend past Miami to Key West. Agricultural development, settlement, industry, and tourism all followed the rails.

Growth and change

The growth of Florida in the early 20th century was frantic, if not chaotic. In the 1920s Florida experienced a land rush with rapidly rising demand and prices and a speculative fever that resulted in a bust for many, bringing rewards for the more fortunate only after some years. World War II spurred a massive investment in the U.S. military and the defense industry as a whole. Defense installations remained important after the war, and the state gained the John F. Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral. In many ways, Florida remained through the first half of the 20th century a typical Southern state. For the most part, conservative Democrats controlled state and local politics and severely limited the opportunities for African Americans. The Latin American influence remained confined to the Greater Tampa and Greater Miami areas.

After World War II, Florida experienced sustained, rapid population growth, propelled first by Americans who were relocating to the state for the warm climate and then in the late 1950s and ’60s by the arrival of thousands of Cuban exiles. Since the 1950s the state’s population growth rate has consistently been among the fastest in the country. Florida’s economic growth has been heavily focused in services, retail, transportation, and construction. The entertainment industry has expanded with year-round tourism, especially in the Miami and Orlando area, and various manufacturing sectors and high-technology industries have been growing rapidly. During the last decades of the 20th century and the early years of the 21st, Florida has been a leader in new job growth.

Florida’s political life has become more complex with the massive demographic changes. Although there are still many Floridians with a “Southern” orientation, the influx of immigrants has brought the perspectives of both liberal Easterners, many of whom are Jewish, and conservative Latin Americans, many of whom are of Cuban heritage. By welcoming a flood of new residents from northern states and from Canada and accommodating hundreds of thousands of immigrants from the Caribbean area, Florida became the country’s fourth most populous state in the late 1980s and retained that ranking into the 21st century. The state also developed an increasingly international focus. Miami has become the economic “capital” of the Caribbean, and Spanish has surpassed English as the primary language in some areas. Floridians take most of these developments in stride, though the problems of rapid growth have resulted in pressure on the natural environment and have taxed the state’s social resources. Ironically, the nation’s oldest region of European settlement has once again become a frontier.