Local government
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At the local level, Morocco is subdivided into multiple levels of government, all directly under the Ministry of the Interior. At the top are 16 regions, which are further divided into several dozen provinces and urban prefectures, each ruled by a governor appointed by the king. Beneath this second-order subdivision are rural qaḍawāt (districts) and municipalities, governed by chefs de cercle. The fourth level comprises rural communes and autonomous urban centres, governed respectively by qāʾids (caids) and pashas. Lower-order officials are appointed either by the Ministry of the Interior or by the governors. Each level has popularly elected bodies whose primary function is to help determine local matters and priorities, such as initiating development projects and deciding budget expenditures. At the end of the 1990s, government policy was moving toward allowing greater decision making at the local level.
Justice
In theory, the Qurʾān is still the source of law. It is, in effect, exercised by the qāḍīs (Muslim religious judges) and is limited to matters relating to the personal status of Muslims. Rabbinical justice applies to Jews. All other matters, whether they concern Muslims, Jews, or others, are in the hands of secular courts that apply a French-inspired legal code. The highest legal authority is the Supreme Court, which supervises a legal system consisting of courts of appeal, regional tribunals, magistrates’ courts, and, at the lowest level, courts of first instance. All judges receive appointments from the king and are supervised by the Ministry of Justice. The legal system, however, has not been immune to pressures for reform. Moroccan women, in particular, have sought reforms in the Mudawwanah, or code of personal status and family law, in an effort to change inequities in inheritance, divorce, and other matters that have traditionally favoured men. In 2004 parliament issued a new, more liberal, personal status code.
Political process
Members of the 120-member House of Councillors are chosen for six-year terms by local councils, trade unions, and professional associations. All 395 members of the House of Representatives are directly elected to five-year terms by popular vote. The constitution prohibits a one-party system, and many parties exist.
Political parties are generally either “pro-palace” or reformist in outlook. Legislative elections held in 1997 marked a significant change in Moroccan politics as a reform-oriented coalition overtook the pro-palace coalition. From 2011 until 2021 the Islamist Justice and Development Party (Parti de la Justice et du Développement; PJD) was the largest party in the parliament, but it struggled to gain enough support from other parties to govern effectively. In 2021 the parliament altered how its seats were allocated, and parties favourable to the king’s agenda retook the majority.
The Ministry of the Interior retains considerable power, as do the security forces. Islamist groups have remained active on the political front, presenting an ongoing challenge to the palace. Some of the more pragmatic factions, such as the PJD, were politically co-opted after their representatives were elected to the 1997 parliament, but more militant groups, such as al-ʿAdl wa al-Iḥsān, have retained a significant power base within the universities and among unemployed young people and have occasionally resorted to violence.
Although all citizens are franchised and have equal rights with respect to education, employment, private property, and the right to strike, in reality differences abound, especially with regard to women. Electoral quotas have increased the participation of women in legislative bodies: 90 seats are reserved for women in the House of Representatives, while one-third of the seats are reserved in regional and local bodies.
Security
The country’s military consists of the Royal Armed Forces—this includes the army (the largest branch) and a small navy and air force—the National Police Force, the Royal Gendarmerie (mainly responsible for rural security), and the Auxiliary Forces. Men aged 19 to 25 must register for conscription, of which a portion are drafted for 12 months of service; women register for conscription on a voluntary basis. Internal security is generally effective, and acts of political violence are rare (one exception, a terrorist bombing in May 2003 in Casablanca, killed scores). The UN maintains a small observer force in Western Sahara, where a large number of Morocco’s troops are stationed. The Saharawi group Polisario maintains an active militia of an estimated 5,000 fighters in Western Sahara and has engaged in intermittent warfare with Moroccan forces since the 1980s.
Health and welfare
Morocco has a relatively favourable ratio of physicians and other trained medical personnel to population. The government has emphasized preventive medicine by increasing the number of dispensaries and health centres. More than half of the rural population, however, still lacks access to these facilities. In addition, only a small portion of the rural population and not all of the urban population have access to safe drinking water. Infant mortality rates remain high, and at least one-third of the population experiences malnutrition. Diseases such as hepatitis remain prevalent, and disorders such as schistosomiasis are becoming more frequent with the expansion of irrigation.
Housing
Housing in Morocco ranges from the traditional to the ultramodern. In rural areas, some Moroccans still reside in ksour and agricultural villages. Living conditions in these places remain severe. Despite efforts by the government and some private groups to renovate and modernize the traditional medinas, access to public utilities in numerous city centres likewise remains limited. For many years the government tried to discourage the development of bidonvilles and other spontaneous settlements. More recently, however, it has provided these communities with electricity, piped water, and other facilities and encouraged residents to improve their structures. The government, along with private developers, has also promoted the construction of new housing units throughout the country, but these are largely inhabited by the middle class. “Clandestine” or illegal housing of a more permanent nature has grown up on the urban periphery. The government is seeking ways to regularize this type of housing by bringing it up to an acceptable standard and by providing it with basic services, albeit after construction has occurred.
Education of Morocco
Morocco allocates approximately one-fifth of its budget to education. Much of this is spent on building schools to accommodate the rapidly growing population. Education is mandatory for children between the ages of 6 and 15 years. In urban areas the majority of children in this age group attend school, though on a national scale the level of participation drops significantly. About three-fourths of school-age males attend school, but only about half of school-age girls; these proportions drop markedly in rural areas. Slightly more than half of the children go on to secondary education, including trade and technical schools. Of these, few seek higher education. Poor school attendance, particularly in rural areas, has meant a low rate of literacy, which is about two-fifths of the population.
Morocco has more than four dozen universities, institutes of higher learning, and polytechnics dispersed at urban centres throughout the country. Its leading institutions include Muḥammad V University in Rabat, the country’s largest university, with branches in Casablanca and Fès; the Hassan II Agriculture and Veterinary Institute in Rabat, which conducts leading social science research in addition to its agricultural specialties; and Al-Akhawayn University in Ifrane, a public English-language university inaugurated in 1995 with contributions from Saudi Arabia and the United States.
Cultural life
Cultural milieu
The area that is now Morocco has long been a crossroads between Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Middle East, and diverse cultural and ethnic groups have migrated through the region and left their mark on it. Beginning in the 8th century, indigenous Amazigh culture was met with waves of Arab conquerors and travelers who brought with them the Islamic faith and the powerful influence of Arabic language and culture. The arrival of numerous Jewish and Muslim refugees from the Spanish Reconquista beginning in the 16th century left Moroccan culture with a lasting Andalusian quality, and starting in the 19th century, the influence of French culture began to grow—alongside French political power—in all parts of North Africa. French culture—along with the persistence of the French language—has continued to exert a strong influence on Morocco. Some Moroccans have also renewed their interest in Amazigh culture, and civic associations have been formed to encourage the study of Tamazight literature and oral traditions.
Daily life and social customs
Social life for most Moroccans still centres on home and family. The sidewalk café is a favourite gathering place for men, and watching a football (soccer) match on television in the local café is a popular form of entertainment. Big cities such as Casablanca boast a variety of diversions, including cinemas, restaurants, and shopping in modern boutiques or in the souk, the open-air market in which vendors sell a wide array of local arts and crafts items alongside foods and imported commodities. Morocco’s extensive coastline has numerous fine beaches, some of them private and off-limits but many of them open to the public and within easy reach of the city. On weekends families often spend the day at the shore, swimming, picnicking, and playing sports.
Moroccan cuisine has gained a following among connoisseurs worldwide, and the country’s rich agricultural regions provide ample products for Moroccan kitchens. Meat staples include fish, lamb, and fowl—including pigeon, which is considered a delicacy when baked in pastry, the b’stillah, a national favourite. Tomatoes, peppers, onions, and eggplants are among the numerous vegetables typically used in dishes, and fruits of all varieties are enjoyed. Bread is, as in all countries of the Middle East and North Africa, a deep cultural symbol as well as a daily staple. The premier Moroccan food, however, is couscous, a semolina-based pasta served with a meat stew. Kabobs of various types are common, as are salads and soups. Harira, a thick and hearty lamb soup, is served to break the fast at Ramadan and is a national speciality. The national drink is mint tea. Morocco is a wine-producing country, but production had begun to decline by the early 21st century under religious pressure that viewed alcohol consumption as inappropriate.
Moroccans observe a number of secular and religious holidays. Islamic holidays include the two ʿīds, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, and the Prophet’s birthday (mawlid); national holidays include Independence Day and the king’s birthday.
The arts
The production of Moroccan literature has continued to grow and diversify. To the traditional genres—poetry, essays, and historiography—have been added forms inspired by Middle Eastern and Western literary models. French is often used in publishing research in the social and natural sciences, and in the fields of literature and literary studies, works are published in both Arabic and French. Moroccan writers, such as Mohammed Choukri, Driss Chraïbi, Abdallah Laroui, Abdelfattah Kilito, and Fatima Mernissi, publish their works in both French and English. Expatriate writers such as Pierre Loti, William S. Burroughs, and Paul Bowles have drawn attention to Moroccan writers as well as to the country itself.
Since independence a veritable blossoming has taken place in painting and sculpture, popular music, amateur theatre, and filmmaking. The Moroccan National Theatre (founded 1956) offers regular productions of Moroccan and French dramatic works. Art and music festivals take place throughout the country during the summer months, among them the World Sacred Music Festival at Fès.
Moroccan music, influenced by Arab, Amazigh, African, and Spanish traditions, makes use of a number of traditional instruments, such as the flute (nāy), shawm (ghaita), zither (qanūn), and various short necked lutes (including the ʿūd and gimbrī). These are often backed by explosive percussion on the darbūkka (terra-cotta drum). Among the most popular traditional Moroccan artists internationally are the Master Musicians of Jajouka, an all-male guild trained from childhood, and Hassan Hakmoun, a master of gnāwa trance music, a popular spiritual style that traces its roots to sub-Saharan Africa. Younger Moroccans enjoy raï, a style of plain-speaking Algerian music that incorporates traditional sounds with those of Western rock, Jamaican reggae, and Egyptian and Moroccan popular music.
Cultural institutions
Morocco has a number of fine museums situated throughout the country. The Batha Museum, located in Fès and housed in a former 19th-century royal residence, specializes in historical Moroccan art and has an excellent collection of native ceramics. The Oudaïa Museum (founded 1915; also known as the Museum of Moroccan Art) is located near Rabat’s Oudaïa Casbah. Originally constructed as a private residence in the 17th century, the museum has collections of premodern Moroccan arts and crafts, as does the Dar El-Jamaï Museum (1920), which is located in Meknès. Rabat’s Archaeological Museum (1931) has a comprehensive collection covering the entirety of Morocco’s history. Morocco is also home to a number of learned societies, research institutes, and archives.
Sports and recreation
Spectator sports in Morocco traditionally centred on the art of horsemanship until European sports—football (soccer), polo, swimming, and tennis—were introduced at the end of the 19th century. Football is the country’s premier sport, popular among the urban youth in particular, and in 1970 Morocco became the first African country to play in World Cup competition. At the 1984 Olympic Games, two Moroccans won gold medals in track and field events, one of whom—Nawal El Moutawakel in the 400 metre hurdles—was the first woman from an Arab or Islamic country to win an Olympic gold medal. Tennis and golf have also become popular. Several Moroccan professional players have competed in international competition, and the country fielded its first Davis Cup team in 1999.
Media and publishing
Morocco’s government-owned radio and television network, Radiodiffusion Télévision Marocaine (RTM), broadcasts throughout the country. Radio broadcasts are in Arabic, French, Tamazight, Spanish, and English, while television is broadcast in Arabic, Tamazight, and French. In addition, a private television network is headquartered in Casablanca and a private radio network in Tangier.
There are about a dozen daily newspapers in Morocco, published in Rabat, Casablanca, and Tangier and written in both French and Arabic. Most are organs of political parties, whereas the remainder are owned by or sympathetic to the government. In addition, a rich variety of periodicals represent various professions, trades, intellectual interests, and avocations. The high rate of illiteracy, however, keeps readership low and makes television the primary medium for disseminating news and information.
Abdallah Laroui Will D. Swearingen Susan Gilson MillerHistory
This discussion focuses on Morocco since the 16th century. For a more-detailed treatment of earlier periods and of the country in its regional context, see North Africa.
Situated in the northwest corner of Africa and, on a clear day, visible from the Spanish coast, Morocco has resisted outside invasion while serving as a meeting point for European, Eastern, and African civilizations throughout history. Many of its early inhabitants, the Imazighen (Berbers), had adopted Christianity or Judaism, which were introduced during a brief period of Roman rule. In the late 7th century, Arab invaders from the East brought Islam, which the Imazighen gradually assimilated. Sunni Islam triumphed over various sectarian tendencies in the 12th and 13th centuries under the doctrinally rigorous Almohad dynasty. The Christian Reconquest of Spain in the later Middle Ages brought waves of Muslim and Jewish exiles from Spain to Morocco, injecting a Hispanic flavour into Moroccan urban life. Apart from some isolated coastal enclaves, however, Europeans failed to establish a permanent foothold in the area. In the 16th century, Ottoman invaders from Algeria attempted to add Morocco to their empire, thus threatening the country’s independence. They, too, were thwarted, leaving Morocco virtually the only Arab country never to experience Ottoman rule. In 1578, three kings fought and died near Ksar el-Kebir (Alcazarquivir), including the Portuguese monarch Sebastian. This decisive battle, known as the Battle of the Three Kings, was claimed as a Moroccan victory and put an end to European incursions onto Moroccan soil for three centuries. The 17th century saw the rise of the ʿAlawite dynasty of sharifs, who still rule Morocco today. This dynasty fostered trade and cultural relations with sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, and the Arab lands, though religious tensions between Islam and Christendom often threatened the peace.
By the late 17th century, Morocco’s cultural and political identity as an Islamic monarchy was firmly established. The figure of the strong sultan was personified by Mawlāy Ismāʿīl (1672–1727), who used a slave army, known as the ʿAbīd al-Bukhārī, to subdue all parts of the country and establish centralized rule. Subsequent monarchs often used their prestige as religious leaders to contain internal conflicts caused by competition among tribes. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when Europe was preoccupied with revolution and continental war, Morocco withdrew into a period of isolation. On the eve of the modern era, despite their geographic proximity, Moroccans and Europeans knew little about each other.
