Government and society

Cultural life

Tribal organization varies from the autocratic angs (chiefs) of the Konyaks and hereditary chieftainships of the Semas and Changs to the democratic structures of the Angamis, Aos, Lothas, and Rengmas. A prominent village institution is the morung (a communal house or dormitory for young unmarried men), where skulls and other trophies of war formerly were hung. The pillars are still carved with striking representations of tigers, hornbills, and human and other figures. Women hold a relatively high and honourable position in Naga society. They work in the fields on equal terms with men and have considerable influence in the tribal councils. A central feature of Naga life is the Feast of Merit, a series of ceremonies culminating with the sacrifice of a mithan (a domesticated guar). Each tribe has its gennas, or festivals, and Naga dance, music, song, and folklore all express an exuberant concern for life.

History

Nagaland has no early written history, although medieval chronicles of the neighbouring Ahom kingdom of Assam tell of the Naga tribes, their economy, and their customs. The 1816 invasion of Assam by Burmans from Myanmar led to oppressive Burman rule from 1819 until the establishment of British rule over Assam in 1826. The advent of British administration, which by 1892 encompassed the whole of Naga territory (except the rugged Tuensang area in the northeast), ended the practices of headhunting and intervillage raids and brought relative peace to the region.

After India became independent in 1947, the Naga territory initially remained a part of Assam. However, a strong nationalist movement began seeking a political union of the Naga tribes, and extremists demanded outright secession from the Indian union. This movement led to a number of violent incidents, and in 1955 the Indian army was called in to restore order. In 1957, after an agreement was reached between Naga leaders and the Indian government, the Naga Hills region of Assam and the Tuensang frontier division to the northeast were brought together under a single unit directly administered by the Indian government. Despite the agreement, unrest continued in the form of noncooperation with the Indian government, nonpayment of taxes, sabotage, and attacks on the army. A further accord reached at the Naga People’s Convention meeting of July 1960 resolved that Nagaland should become a constituent state of the Indian union. Nagaland achieved statehood in 1963, and a democratically elected government took office in 1964.

Rebel activity continued, however, increasingly assuming the form of banditry and often motivated more by tribal rivalry and personal vendetta than by political aspiration. Cease-fires and negotiations did little to stop the insurgency, and in March 1975 direct presidential rule was imposed on the state. Although leaders of the underground agreed in November 1975 to lay down their arms and accept the Indian constitution, a small group of hard-core extremists continued to agitate for Naga independence.

The National Socialist Council of Nagaland, a powerful pro-separatist extremist group, was formed in 1980, but because of disagreements between its members, it split into two factions in 1988. The dominant faction negotiated a cease-fire with the Indian government in 1997. However, the agreement has been largely ineffective, as violent incidents have occurred into the early 21st century. Moreover, fighting between the factions has increased as each vies for territorial dominance of the region.