Education of New York City
- Officially:
- the City of New York
- Historically:
- New Amsterdam, the Mayor, Alderman, and Commonality of the City of New York, and New Orange
- Byname:
- the Big Apple
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Primary and secondary systems
Ever since the first school opened in New Amsterdam in the 1630s, New York has sought fine schools, but until after the American Revolution education was largely handled by tutors. Public funds for education became available after 1795, and in Manhattan a Free School Society was formed to disperse the state money. The growing numbers of New York Roman Catholics were distressed by what they interpreted to be Protestant indoctrination within the school system. In the 1840s Archbishop John Hughes was instrumental in establishing a Catholic parochial school system, which has continued to offer an alternative to public education. Neither system ever achieved universal attendance during the 19th century, however, for not until 1874 was a compulsory attendance law for the primary grades enacted; new immigration subsequently overloaded all city schools. After consolidation, Greater New York launched a massive public building program to provide schools where a half-million eligible students could be educated each year. Secondary education was not even offered to its children until the late 19th century, but by 1920 massive construction made primary education, along with both ordinary and specialized high schools, available for everyone. Several New York high schools—Stuyvesant, Bronx Science, Brooklyn Tech, and Performing Arts—have retained national reputations for excellence, and the school system has also provided evening classes in adult education and practical skills for the city’s large immigrant population.
In the late 1990s New York administered the nation’s largest public school system; more than one million students attend in excess of a thousand public schools. Unionization of city teachers began in 1916; the American Federation of Teachers is now the bargaining agent for the present-day staff. In the last decades of the 20th century, education became a sphere of unending controversy. The postwar white exodus to suburbia drained students from public schools and transformed them into minority-dominated institutions most of whose instructors were white and Jewish. During the 1960s a series of strikes and ugly racial confrontations caused disorder in the city, and in 1969 the state legislature divided the city into 32 districts. Henceforth primary education was to be controlled by elected governing boards so that educational goals could be established by local communities. Each board would select its superintendent, but resources would still be allocated by a chancellor of the entire school system, who was named by a mayor-dominated Board of Education.
The unwieldy system worked only sporadically, and by the 1990s its failures were apparent. In some districts, allies of the teachers’ union dominated elections that were largely ignored by voters. In others, coalitions of minority residents installed poor administrators who made the schools vehicles for patronage and corruption. Wage levels declined relative to those of suburban systems, racial segregation in schools caused by housing patterns and economic stratification increased, and many tenured teachers were accused of ignoring the special needs of minority students. Dropouts increased, performance levels fell precipitously, and violence in schools appeared endemic. Colleges and businesses alike complained bitterly that schools turn out “functional illiterates.” In the last two decades of the 20th century, the system was led by a dozen chancellors, and the mayor’s role in their selection became as highly politicized as district appointment of school principals. In 1996 the state legislature once again intervened, ending local authority to name principals and attempting to remove party and ethnic politics from the system. In 1999 principals agreed to surrender their tenure rights in return for larger wage increases. The long decline of a once-praised system has benefited parochial and private schools in New York, although the cost of a nonpublic education has escalated considerably.
Higher education
The metropolitan area has more than 80 colleges, including such nationally famed institutions as Columbia (1754), New York (1831), Fordham (1841), and Rockefeller (1901) universities, and Cooper Union (1859) and the New School (originally New School for Social Research, 1919). Its vast municipal system, the City University of New York (CUNY), traces its origin to City College (1847) and has some 25 units: 11 senior colleges and seven community colleges along with William E. Macaulay Honors College, CUNY Graduate Center, Craig Newmark Graduate School of Journalism, CUNY School of Labor and Urban Studies, CUNY School of Law, CUNY School of Professional Studies, and CUNY Graduate School of Public Health and Health Policy. With schools ranging from Ivy League to community colleges, New York is one of the nation’s premier university towns, its streets pulsating with student life.
Cultural life
As real as the bedrock beneath Manhattan is the cultural attraction generated by New York. For more than a century, talented but unrecognized artists as well as ambitious wanna-bes from every part of the globe and nation have gravitated to a city they feel is their spiritual home. A steady stream of the cultural elite flows toward the metropolis and creates an electric atmosphere. In virtually every artistic field—theatre, music, dance, painting, literature, fashion, film, print, and sports—the city is the “place to go” to see if you can “make it.” No environment offers a harsher test of one’s abilities. Literary figures as diverse as Washington Irving, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman, O. Henry, the members of the Algonquin Round Table, Rex Stout, Ed McBain (Evan Hunter), and Joseph O’Neill have all attempted to explain the allure and the dangers of the city; all succeeded and failed, to some degree. In the 19th century Manhattan was home to the Hudson River school of artists, and the Tenth Street Studio in Greenwich Village and its surrounding area shaped the national imagination. Willa Cather, who grew up in Nebraska, came to write of the West on Bank Street in the Village, while Jackson Pollock came from the West to create Abstract Expressionism and help change the direction of modern art. But perhaps the greatest proof of New York’s dynamic appeal are the millions of annual visitors who come to experience its vibes, variety, and vitality. Whether artist, visitor, or resident, all seem united in the belief that New York is, as writer Joan Didion described it, “an infinitely romantic nation, the mysterious mixture of all love, money and power, the shining and perishable dream.”
Undoubtedly culture is big business in New York, and no city in the country has more institutions and people dedicated to serving its demands. The Metropolitan Museum of Art (1870) is probably the best known and most visited of the city museums, but the metropolis has scores of concert halls, schools of art, music and acting, restaurants, and galleries, as well as agents, promoters, and hucksters of every type. It is the city of promoter P.T. Barnum, philanthropist James (“Diamond Jim”) Brady, and financier Malcolm Forbes. It can fulfill every desire, from photography to pornography to publicity. The Cloisters (1938), part of the Metropolitan Museum, specializes in medieval art, while the avant-garde sensibility is catered to at the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA; 1929) and at the Whitney (1930) and Guggenheim (1939) museums. Natural sciences and the shape of the skies can be studied at the American Museum of Natural History (1869), while those who seek the best pre-Columbian or Egyptian art should journey to the Brooklyn Museum of Art (1823). Those interested in Native Americans, the tenement house, dolls, or African art will find institutions specific to their needs. Great stone lions, dubbed “Patience” and “Fortitude” by Mayor La Guardia, guard the New York Public Library (1895), whose mammoth holdings include the Schomburg Center (African American history) and are exceeded in the nation only by the Library of Congress. Researchers are also drawn to the Morgan Library (notably for medieval and Renaissance Europe) and Ellis Island (immigration). Whether the crowds who come to New York expect Fun City, the Big Apple, or Gotham, the city can fulfill every expectation of an admiring public.
The arts of New York City
Ever since the 1890s Broadway has reigned as the “Great White Way,” the major theatrical centre of the country. New York produces, casts, and consumes the legitimate plays and musical extravaganzas that Americans desire as well as thousands of other shows that only true supporters come to see. Theatre is New York’s “fabulous invalid,” periodically near death and at other times revived, and Variety (1905) is the news magazine that informs the world of its health. The city’s Off Broadway and Off-Off Broadway venues are where experimental theatre apprentices playwrights, actors, dancers, and directors. In the last decades of the 20th century, major new stages in Times Square, skyscrapers, and a suddenly chic 42nd Street drew new audiences, and the increased price of tickets showed wider interest. For bargain seekers, Manhattan also offers free Shakespeare in Central Park, while cut-rate tickets to current productions are always available. In every borough local groups offer more performances than anyone can attend.
Completed in the 1960s, the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts is a mecca for the arts patron. It is home to the Metropolitan Opera Association; the New York Philharmonic performs in Avery Fisher Hall; and the New York State Theater offers a variety of attractions, including the New York City Ballet, which has the highest reputation of any troupe in the country. The finest concerts in a very musical city are heard in Carnegie Hall (1891); the two million dollars donated by Andrew Carnegie for its construction have perhaps given more pleasure per dollar than any other philanthropic endowment. Town Hall in Manhattan and the Brooklyn Academy of Music, the latter the oldest performing arts centre in the nation, offer viable alternatives. Performance art is always available, varies from extortionately expensive to amateur free events, and is enjoyed by the complete range of audiences.
No city is as recognizable to other Americans as is New York; its glittering nightlife and its gritty neighbourhoods are equally part of the national consciousness. Film directors love to use the city as their set, and city administrations have increasingly encouraged the practice. Until World War I, Queens was the centre of the early film industry, and afterward New York remained vital to documentary and independent film production. Astoria regained its position as a studio centre in the 1980s. It is also fitting that the city that transmitted the first television signals became the setting for many of the most successful TV shows, from I Love Lucy to All in the Family to Seinfeld to Sex and the City to Mad Men to The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel. The Paley Center for Media (1975) in Manhattan allows anyone to recapture famous episodes from this somewhat fictionalized yet also very real New York, and the Museum of the Moving Image (1988) in Queens advances the understanding, enjoyment, and appreciation of the art, history, technique, and technology of film, television, and digital media.
Recreation
New York never ignores the needs of its ordinary people. Since the colonial period, parades and festivals have been part of city life and the Halloween and Thanksgiving Day parades of modern times illustrate the strength of the tradition; in the 19th century parades also provided occasions for Roman Catholic and Protestant Irish to battle in the streets. Yiddish theatre was born on the Lower East Side, while vaudeville and burlesque were invented to draw audiences to more earthy delights. After 1898 the greater city understood that it had obligations to create green space beyond the expanses of Central and Prospect parks, so gardens, along with zoos in every borough, were provided for residents. New York has hundreds of parks, but its myriad of other entertainment possibilities include a miniature reproduction of the metropolis constructed in the Queens Museum, a restored Staten Island village at Richmondtown, or the jewel-like Orchard Beach in the Bronx; the New York Botanical Garden in Bronx Park is one of the country’s leading centres of botanical research. No other public beach is as famous as Coney Island, and thousands of bathers often crowd there close to the sea; its Cyclone Roller Coaster became a national landmark in 1988. Almost as many find the same experience available at Rockaway Beach in Queens. Amusement parks at both sites provide thrills for generations of New Yorkers.
Many professional as well as recreational sports are popular in the metropolis, but probably no sport is as closely identified with New York as baseball. In 1903 a professional baseball club, the Highlanders, moved from Baltimore to New York and was renamed the Yankees in 1913. The team has since played in every borough except Staten Island, won more than two dozen world championships, and become history’s most dominant sports franchise. Manhattan also loved its Giants baseball team, before the club’s departure for San Francisco in 1957; Brooklyn lived for “next year” with the Dodgers; and Queens (since 1962) has been home to the New York Mets. New York’s high-profile professional teams include the National Football League’s Jets and Giants (both of whom actually play their home games in New Jersey), the National Basketball Association’s Knicks and Nets, the Women’s National Basketball Association’s Liberty, the National Hockey League’s Rangers, and Major League Soccer’s New York City Football Club. Madison Square Garden, now in its fourth incarnation, has been the site of many championship boxing matches, innumerable other sporting matches, musical events, and political conventions and may well be the most storied indoor arena in American history. Whether in watching sports, picnicking in the parks, visiting museums, attending the theatre, capitalizing on the city’s rich array of eateries (from ethnic delis and sidewalk carts to five-star restaurants), or simply watching its street life, the quality of cultural activities available in New York is unsurpassed.
History
The colonial city
As every schoolchild knows, Europe’s desire to open trade with the East inspired the explorations that discovered the New World. Giovanni da Verrazzano (1524) and Henry Hudson (1609) were part of that long effort, and they were among the first Europeans to visit and gaze at the vast expanse of New York harbour. The primary result of Hudson’s voyage, and his report of a protected anchorage near good farmland, was the Dutch West India Company’s decision to place a trading post on the southern shore of Manna-hata Island; by 1626 a settlement called New Amsterdam was established. It was not the first Dutch settlement in North America, but the advantages of its location made it immensely valuable. In May 1626 Peter Minuit arrived with orders to secure title to the land. He quickly negotiated the real estate deal of the millennium, purchasing the area from a band of Native Americans who probably did not own it for trade goods worth the equivalent of 60 guilders (converted to the legendary $24). Minuit and his successor governors knew that expanding Dutch access to furs and trade were their primary tasks, and commerce fueled city development. In 1638 a new governor reported that one-fourth of all buildings were “grog shops” devoted to sailor demands. Despite revelries and intermittent clashes with local Native American tribes, the settlement gradually moved northward, laid out farms, and expanded trade with New England and the world.
The most famous governor of the Dutch period was Peter Stuyvesant, director general of New Netherland in 1647–64. Stuyvesant’s military background enabled him to spruce up the disorderly town, and he soon granted it recognition as an independent city (1653). The religious orthodoxy he attempted to impose on his already multicultural domain, however, soon led him to clash with the Quaker population of Flushing (1657). Ultimately, Stuyvesant was ordered by his superiors to “shut his eyes” to dissenters so long as they did not disrupt society or trade. The governor found such official blindness difficult, and his imperious nature continued to alienate town burghers. When a British fleet sent by James, duke of York (the future James II), appeared off Gravesend in August 1664, Stuyvesant discovered that no one would fight for his colony. “Old Peg Leg” was forced to surrender on September 8 without even firing a shot. Interestingly, he chose to take an oath of allegiance to the English crown and lived out his life in the city. Despite a brief Dutch reoccupation in 1673–74, the destiny of the colony (which had been renamed in honour of James) had shifted to London. Within the conquered city, resident Dutch and incoming English merchants got along quite well, and representatives of both groups constituted a city elite into the 19th century.
A series of English governors ruled New York and hoped that its commerce would make them rich. New York held the flour-bolting monopoly for the area (1680), it was declared the sole port of entry for the colony, and its active community of merchants carried on a world trade. Thomas Dongan, a Roman Catholic governor, granted a royal charter of incorporation to the city in 1686 and furthered religious toleration and representative government within the colony. Following the Glorious Revolution in England (1688–89), the brief tenure of Jacob Leisler marked a period of intolerance new to the city and left a heritage of class factionalism that endured for several decades after his execution for treason in 1691. By 1700 the city had nearly 5,000 residents and was connected to the mainland for the first time by the construction of the Kings Bridge to the Bronx.
Tensions between merchant aristocrats, who sought to avoid imperial trade regulations, and venal governors, who were willing to turn a blind eye if they were suitably rewarded, were abundant. Class and ethnic conflict was present, and in 1712 and 1741 public fear of African Americans led to repression and numerous executions. Indicative of a growing spirit of independence was the libel case of John Peter Zenger, a journalist whose weekly journal criticized the political machinations and cupidity of Gov. William Cosby. In 1735 a jury of his peers found Zenger not guilty, determining that he had published the truth. The decision was a signal victory for freedom of the press and demonstrated growing civic disobedience within New York during pre-Revolutionary decades. By 1756 assembly leaders humbled royal governors by forcing them to accept annual salary appropriations. The city hosted the Stamp Act Congress (1765), and the Sons of Liberty used violence to prevent the use of excise-tax stamps. New York’s merchant community led the nonimportation program that forced repeal of the measure in 1766, even as the assembly refused to deliver food and cider to British soldiers quartered in the city. Clashes between the Sons of Liberty and soldiers were unending, and the first “battle” of the American Revolution was fought on Golden Hill (south of present City Hall) in January 1770. New York’s “tea party” took place in April 1774, months after Boston’s famous depredations, but it was held in daylight and without any disguises. New York issued the proclamation calling for a Continental Congress, and its citizens forced the resident royal governor to take refuge on a ship in the harbour long before independence was declared.
Almost one-third of all the battles in the Revolution occurred in New York state, but the city’s role was less than heroic. George Washington recognized the “infinite importance” of strategic New York, but in battles between August and October 1776 he was unable to defend the city. For seven years the city was occupied, during which its population declined and two fires destroyed many of its structures. Washington eventually returned to New York after the British evacuation in 1783. Quickly rebuilt, the city served both as state capital (until 1797) and as capital of the Confederation (1785–90); it hosted the inauguration of Washington as president, in April 1789. As the first capital of the United States, New York entertained the first meeting of Congress and the first sessions of the Supreme Court. When the capital was moved to Philadelphia for political reasons, Abigail Adams left the city in despair, for her new home would “not be Broadway.”
