In general, Newfoundland and Labrador has cold but not severe winters and warm to cool summers. The mean July temperature in the province ranges from 40 to 50 °F (5 to 10 °C) in northern Labrador to 59 °F (15 °C) on the island’s south coast. In the southern interior the July mean is just above 60 °F (16 °C). January mean temperatures are above 20 °F (−7 °C) in the southern portion of the island, on the coast of Labrador approximately 10 °F (−12 °C) and 0 °F (−18 °C) in the south and north, respectively, and about −15 °F (−26 °C) in interior western Labrador. Extreme low temperatures in southern Newfoundland rarely reach 0 °F, but in western Labrador readings below −40 °F (−40 °C) are not uncommon. The annual precipitation varies from 55 inches (1,400 mm) in the southern parts of the island to about 17 inches (430 mm) at Cape Chidley on the northern tip of the Labrador Peninsula. In the northern regions, as much as half of the annual precipitation occurs as snow. In the south, the snowfall usually accounts for only about one-fifth of the total precipitation.

Midlatitude storms, moving across Canada and up the Atlantic seaboard, have a pronounced effect on Newfoundland’s climate. Warm air drawn in on the southern side of the disturbances contributes to the high precipitation in the southern part of the island. Northeasterly and easterly winds prevailing in advance of each storm blow across the cold Labrador Current, keep coastal summers cool, and impede the coming of spring. Northwesterly winds, following in the wake of each storm, carry in cold Arctic air that forces temperatures even lower than the latitude and marine location would suggest. To the south the cool air of the Labrador Current mixes with the warmer air over the Gulf Stream to produce frequent dense fogs, which are most common over the Grand Banks and along the southern and southeastern coasts of Newfoundland.

Plant and animal life

With the exception of the tundra of northern Labrador and the barren reaches of higher elevations and of some coastal regions, much of the province is forested. The principal species are conifers, of which balsam fir and black spruce are the most abundant. In most parts of the province, but particularly on the island, conifers are mixed with such deciduous species as the paper and yellow birches and a wide variety of hardwood shrubs. The best stands of forest occur in areas of deep and well-drained soils, while in less-favored areas much of the forest growth is stunted. In others, repeated fires and subsequent erosion have created barrens that produce a great variety of small woody plants.

Moose, introduced to Newfoundland in the early 20th century, are now the most plentiful of the large wild mammals found on the island, where they outnumber the herds of woodland caribou. Labrador, which has a greater variety of wildlife, supports more caribou than moose. Other species include black and polar bears, Arctic and red foxes, beaver, lynx, and the range of small fur-bearing animals common to the northern coniferous forests and the tundra of northern Labrador. Large herds of harp and hooded seals migrate along the coasts of the province. Whales, now protected, are commonly seen throughout the summer as they feed and disport themselves in coastal waters.

Vast colonies of seabirds, notably murres, Atlantic puffins, northern gannets, petrels, and eider ducks, inhabit the offshore islands and headlands. Several species of gulls and terns are ubiquitous, and substantial breeding populations of black ducks and Canada geese are maintained, together with lesser populations of other ducks. Migratory shorebirds and wading birds frequent the coast seasonally. Upland game birds include ptarmigan, grouse, and snipes, while such birds of prey as the osprey and bald eagle are common.

Population composition

The people of Newfoundland are overwhelmingly of European (white) descent. A small population of Inuit (Indigenous peoples of the Arctic and subarctic regions) and Innu (formerly Montagnais and Naskapi; a First Nations people) occupy several settlements in northern and central Labrador, retaining their original languages and a portion of their ancient cultures. In central and southern Labrador there is a significant population (the Labrador Métis) derived from white-Inuit intermarriage. The Beothuk were present on the island until at least the early 19th century and may have intermarried with the Innu and Mi’kmaq. The majority of remaining First Nations peoples are Mi’kmaq, who live mainly on a reserve at Conne River (Miawpukek); there are also concentrations of Mi’kmaq elsewhere in central and western Newfoundland.

The greater part of Newfoundland and Labrador’s people represent an extraordinarily homogeneous group. The vast majority of them trace their origin to the southwestern counties of England or to the southeastern region of Ireland. A small number trace their ancestry to other English and Irish counties, Scotland, Wales, the Channel Islands, France, or the Canadian mainland. The great majority of the people are English-speaking, though there is an active Francophone minority. Historically, social groups have been defined along denominational and ethnic, rather than linguistic, lines. The principal Christian denominations are Anglican, Roman Catholic, United Church of Canada, and Pentecostal.

Settlement patterns

Residents of Newfoundland and Labrador see their province as constituting nine regions—seven on the island of Newfoundland and two in Labrador. Each is distinct in its natural settings and human imprint.

Newfoundland

Avalon Peninsula

The most densely populated part of the island, the Avalon Peninsula on the southeastern coast contains the capital city, St. John’s, the adjacent city of Mount Pearl, a number of smaller towns such as Conception Bay South, Harbour Grace, Carbonear, Trepassey, and Placentia, and a host of small villages typically located at the edge of the sea. These villages were originally settled by fishing families, who needed suitable harbors and access to wood, fresh water, some land to grow vegetables, and fishing grounds. The result—there and elsewhere in the province—was a dispersed pattern of settlement, with houses scattered around a harbor. In some cases, different ethnic or religious groups would build houses together in defined areas. Mercantile centers typically were more closely settled, with a more urban character.

Many of the older houses have disappeared, replaced by structures with newer designs, and relatively few of the inhabitants still fish. Nevertheless, many of these locales retain much of their original character. A heritage movement, which developed in the 1970s, bolstered by tourism and a demand for second homes, has ensured that a substantial number of older buildings have survived in St. John’s and elsewhere.