Urartu

Urartu, ancient country of southwest Asia centred in the mountainous region southeast of the Black Sea and southwest of the Caspian Sea. Today the region is divided among Armenia, eastern Turkey, and northwestern Iran. Mentioned in Assyrian sources from the early 13th century bce, Urartu enjoyed considerable political power in the Middle East in the 9th and 8th centuries bce. The Urartians were succeeded in the area in the 6th century bce by the Armenians.

“Urartu” is an Assyrian name. The Urartians themselves called their country Biainili and their capital, located at modern Van, Tushpa (Turushpa). Most remains of Urartian settlements are found between the four lakes Çildir and Van in Turkey, Urmia in Iran, and Sevan in Armenia, with a sparser extension westward to the Euphrates River.

The Urartians had a number of traits in common with the Hurrians, an earlier Middle Eastern people. Both nations spoke closely related languages and must have sprung from a common ancestor nation (perhaps 3000 bce or earlier). Although the Urartians owed much of their cultural heritage to the Hurrians, they were to a much greater degree indebted to the Assyrians, from whom they borrowed script and literary forms, military and diplomatic practices, and artistic motifs and styles.

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Anatolian art and architecture: Urartu

The Assyrian influence was manifested in two phases: first, from about 1275 bce to 840, when the Assyrians campaigned in Urartian territory and met only scattered resistance; and second, from 840 to 612, during the heyday of the Urartian kingdom. In the first phase, Assyrian influence was felt directly, and the local inhabitants were helplessly exposed to ruthless depredation at the hands of the Assyrians. During that time, the Urartians seem to have eagerly absorbed or imitated the amenities of Assyria’s higher civilization. In the second phase, Urartu produced its own distinctive counterparts to all Assyrian achievements.

The first century of the new kingdom seems to have emphasized military operations in imitation of Assyria, and Urartu waged relentless warfare on its neighbours to the east, west, and north.

For the reign of Sarduri I (c. 840–830 bce), there remain only the inscriptions at Van. But for the reigns of his son Ishpuini (c. 830–810) and especially of Ishpuini’s son Meinua (c. 810–781), Urartian conquests can be measured indirectly from widespread inscriptions ranging from the lower Murat River basin (around Elâziğ) in the west to the Aras (Araks, Araxes) River (i.e., from Erzurum to Mount Ararat) in the north and to the south shore of Lake Urmia in the southeast. Ardini, or Muṣaṣir, once conquered by Tiglath-pileser I of Assyria about 1100, now became part of the Urartian sphere of influence. The temple of Haldi at Ardini was richly endowed by the Urartian kings but was open to Assyrian worshipers.

A number of Urartian inscriptions dealing with religious subjects date to the end of Ishpuini’s reign. It seems that the state religion received its established form at that time, and the hierarchy of the many gods in the Urartian pantheon is expressed by a list of sacrifices due them.

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The first evidence of engineering projects, designed to increase the productivity of the home country by irrigation, dates to the reign of Meinua. That is the “Canal of Meinua,” which led—and still leads—fresh water over a distance of about 28 miles (45 km) from an abundant spring to the southern edge of Van.

From the reigns of Meinua’s son Argishti I (c. 780–756) and grandson Sarduri II (c. 755–735) there is, in addition to inscriptions, a direct historical source in the form of annals carved into the rock of Van and into stelae that were displaced in later times to other locations in the vicinity. Under those kings, Urartu thrust out westward to the great bend of the Euphrates River and intermittently beyond, toward Melitene (modern Malatya) and the ancient Syrian district of Commagene, thus cutting off one of the main supply roads by which Assyria obtained essential iron from the western Taurus Mountains. Argishti I subdued the Melitene Hilaruada (c. 777), as did Sarduri II in the 750s. King Kushtashpi of Commagene was subjugated by Sarduri II about 745. Part of the domain of King Tuate of Tabal in the Taurus Mountains had also fallen to Argishti I about 777. For a short time Urartu thus had a bridgehead west of the Euphrates from Malatya to Halfeti (ancient Halpa) in Commagene, and its empire reached to within 20 miles (32 km) of Aleppo in northern Syria.

Argishti and Sarduri also embarked on what was in the end to prove the most fruitful of all Urartian ventures: the conquest and subsequent agricultural exploitation of the regions across the Aras River. Under Argishti I, Diauehi (“the Land of the Sons of Diau”; Assyrian: Daiaeni) was finally defeated, and the upper and middle Aras River valley became a major centre of building, irrigation, and agricultural activity. Sarduri added Lakes Çildir and Sevan. Further advance to the northwest was checked by a new adversary, the kingdom of Qulha (Greek: Colchis). The tens of thousands of prisoners taken on the yearly military campaigns (in one year as many as 39,000) provided the manpower for intensive cultivation of the royal estates and processing of their crops.

Several times the Urartian kings of that period claimed, probably with justification, to have defeated Assyrian armies: Argishti reported victories over the Assyrians in his sixth and seventh regnal years, when he operated in the Zab and Lake Urmia areas; and Sarduri II defeated the Assyrian king Ashur-nirari V in the upper basin of the Tigris River about 753.

The period 744–715 saw the renewal of Assyrian expansion. In spite of the support of a number of south Anatolian and north Syrian vassals, Sarduri II lost ground steadily, and in 743 Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria (744–727) defeated him and his allies in Commagene near Halfeti. When Tiglath-pileser in 735 advanced all the way to the gates of Tushpa, a palace revolt may have placed Sarduri’s son Rusas I (c. 735–713) at the head of the state.

Tiglath-pileser’s son, King Sargon II of Assyria (721–705), completed the elimination of Urartu as a rival for hegemony in the Middle East. Urartu’s hopes of help from the northern Syrian principalities were dashed by their swift subjection, ending with the incorporation of Carchemish into the Assyrian empire in 717. In the metal-rich Taurus Mountains, the kingdom of Tabal remained a potential ally of Rusas I, as well as of the Phrygian king Midas of the legendary golden touch. After the latter’s defeat, Tabal was annihilated and annexed to Assyria.

In the same year, Sargon began to close in on Urartu from the east. For two years, operations were mostly limited to western Iran. There Assyria championed the interests of the kingdom of Manna, while Urartu aided and abetted Iranian tribes encroaching upon Manna from the east and north. But behind the Urartian lines Assyrian intelligence officers were collecting information with a view to a much more-ambitious military undertaking against Urartu.

What finally tipped the scales in favour of Assyria was the opening up of a second front: the Cimmerians, a nomadic people from the Caucasus, invaded Urartu shortly before 714. Perhaps Rusas I (c. 735–713) himself provoked the onslaught by unwisely destroying several buffer states to the north. In any case, Rusas soon found the Cimmerians at his borders. Undaunted, he proceeded to the attack but suffered a major disaster: the Assyrian crown prince Sennacherib, sent north by King Sargon II (721–705) to gather intelligence about Urartian affairs, reported to his father that Rusas’s whole army had been defeated in Cimmerian territory and that Rusas himself had fled back to Urartu, having lost contact with his commanders. That encouraged Sargon to undertake the ambitious campaign of 714 that put an end to the aspirations of the Urartian kings outside of their mountain homeland. After unsuccessfully heading a coalition of his allies against Assyria, Rusas hastened back to Tuspha, which Sargon wisely did not try to besiege. Sargon avoided a clash with the Cimmerians and instead plundered the main sanctuary of the Urartians at Ardini and carried off the statue of Haldi. Hearing of that third calamity, Rusas committed suicide.

The military setbacks of Rusas I ended Urartu’s political power. But his son Argishti II (c. 712–685) and successors continued the royal tradition of developing the country’s natural resources, and Urartian culture not only survived but continued to flourish for a while, despite its political impotence. The Urartians were finally overcome by a Median invasion late in the 7th century bce.