History of Yunnan

In antiquity Yunnan was inhabited by indigenous groups that were beyond the reach of Han Chinese civilization, though they acknowledged Chinese suzerainty under the Qin (221–207 bce) and Han dynasties. Governmental power rested with tribal chiefs, and Chinese settlers penetrated only the eastern parts of the province. A Yizhou prefecture was set up in the area by the Han in 109 bce. Under the Tang dynasty (618–907 ce) a Dai kingdom, known as Nanzhao, flourished in the Dali region. First sanctioned as a bulwark against Tibetan incursions, Nanzhao eventually threatened Chinese power, which declined during the Five Dynasties (Wudai) period (907–960) and the Song dynasty (960–1279).

This state of affairs came to an end during the Yuan (Mongol) dynasty (1206–1368). The Mongols destroyed Nanzhao in 1253, and, having named the area Yunnan, they made it a province of Yuan China in 1276. The Venetian traveler Marco Polo visited the region in the latter part of the 13th century. To resettle Yunnan, which had been depopulated by warfare, the governor brought in large numbers of Hui (Chinese Muslims) from northwestern China. Thus, the Mongol conquest drew Yunnan into the orbit of Chinese affairs but failed to reduce local interethnic tension between Han and non-Han minorities.

Rulers of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), seeking to tighten their control over the province, used military units to promote migration of the Chinese people from the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) valley to Yunnan. The province was governed through a system of hereditary tusi—that is, local leaders serving as agents of the Chinese magistrates. This policy of indirect rule was continued under the Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12) and the republic (1911–49), when efforts to bring the province more thoroughly under the control of the central government were undertaken, with varying degrees of success.

Regional separatism coupled with ethnic and religious differences made Yunnan a frequent scene of strife. In 1674–78, Wu Sangui, originally sent by the Qing government to crush opposition in Yunnan, used the province as a base for rebellion against the Qing. In 1855–73, Muslims, led by Du Wenxiu (alias Sultan Sulaymān), who obtained arms from the British authorities in Burma (Myanmar), staged the Panthay Rebellion, which was crushed with great cruelty by the Chinese imperial troops, aided by arms from the French authorities in Tonkin (northern Vietnam). In 1915 Cai E, onetime governor of the province, launched in Yunnan his drive to defeat the monarchist movement of Yuan Shikai, the president of the republic, who attempted to make himself emperor of China. Then, spanning the decades between World Wars I and II, the warlords Tang Jiyao and Long Yun ruled the province as a satrapy, keeping it beyond the control of the central government, fostering cultivation of opium poppies, and inflicting great suffering on the people by the collection of high taxes.

During the 19th century, Yunnan fell victim to British and French imperialism. Already established in Vietnam, France regarded Yunnan as within its sphere of influence and built the Hanoi-Kunming railway at the turn of the 20th century to exploit the resources of the province. In 1910 the British, then established in Burma, induced the tusi of Pianma (Hpimau) to defect from the central Chinese government, and they then occupied his territory in northwestern Yunnan. Britain also forced China to give up a tract of territory in what is now the Kachin state of Myanmar (1926–27), as well as the territory in the Wa states (1940).

The Sino-Japanese War (1937–45) brought progress and modernization to Yunnan, as the Nationalist government developed the province into a war base against the Japanese. Factories, universities, and government agencies were transplanted there from the coastal regions, and fresh manpower, capital, and ideas poured into the province. Industries were established, and efforts were made by the government to develop the resources of the region. The Burma Road made Yunnan the corridor through which supplies flowed to Allied war bases in all parts of China, and Kunming became a major U.S. Air Force base. A major advance by the Japanese Army along the upper Salween River in 1944 was halted at Huitongqiao, near Tengchong, indicating the vital role that Yunnan played in the country’s defense. A decade of war forced Yunnan out of its stagnation, while its strategic location made it possible to instill the ideal of national unification in place of separatism. The process of modernization was accelerated after the establishment of the People’s Republic in 1949, especially during the period of rapid industrialization and infrastructure construction in the 1960s and early ’70s.