Growth of trade
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The development of the copper industry caused many of the peoples of Central Africa to look to their own resources for produce that could be sold in order to buy the prestigious new metal and other exotic goods. The salt industry developed out of the needs of long-distance trade. The salt lagoons of the west coast became particularly important, and salt tracks ran far into the interior to agricultural communities without salt of their own to season the cereal dishes that were their staple food. Away from the coast, communities that had access to salt mines, or to dried salt lakes, organized exploitation and marketing, sometimes going far afield to the salt mines of East Africa. Where salt was not available, or where the costs of transport made it prohibitively expensive, people had to make do with salt substitutes such as the ash of marsh plants. Where real salt was produced, however, the industry became a focus for political power, and early states were formed, as on the Loango coast of modern Congo.
Of comparable importance to copper and salt was the textile industry. This also led to long-distance trade as specialized cloths were made for export to neighbouring regions. Like the salt industry, the textile industry sometimes was controlled by princes who dominated the markets and supplied protection to the caravanners who carried the bales of cloth. In western Central Africa the textile industry was based on fibre drawn from the raffia palm. The quality of the finished product, which sometimes had a velvetlike pile and a rich range of natural colours, was much admired by the first foreign visitors to the region. Indeed, raffia squares became the basis of colonial currency in the 17th century. Before that, raffia trading to and from the forest palm groves had become one of the sources of wealth among kings in the Kongo kingdom.
Textile weaving in Central Africa was important not only to kings and colonial governors but also to the regulation of social relations. Cloth provided one of the more durable and valuable possessions in every household. It therefore became the preferred item for social payments. In particular, bride wealth—which in other societies might be paid in gold or cattle—was commonly paid in cloth. The control of weaving was in the hands of old men. They no longer had the strength of young men to go hunting or to raid their neighbours, but they did control social wealth by monopolizing the weaving of raffia cloth. Young men had no access to the cloth and thus could not get married and set up a household; they remained dependent on the elders. The old men controlled cloth, and thus marriage, and could in the last years of their lives marry several young wives and ensure that their own line would be dominant in the next generation. In small and scattered societies across Central Africa, marriage was an important link between communities. Marrying within one’s own clan or lineage was not always desirable, and maintaining contacts with neighbours in order to exchange brides was necessary. Permanent overarching political systems were not common, but the regular patterns of social communication went beyond merely commercial ones.
Another source of wealth that became important throughout the history of Central Africa was the trade in dried fish. The management of fish ponds became one way in which the scale of political power increased from village size to state size. The lakes of the eastern savanna provide one example of early state formation. The ancestors of the Luba became wealthy and powerful by controlling the fishing industry, building canoes and drying ovens, and setting up networks of trade paths along which porters carried tightly packed headloads of dried fish. In tropical conditions many foods were perishable, but dried fish could be preserved for months and carried to regions deficient in protein, where it was sold for high prices. The fish trade of the great rivers remained important, and fishermen were among the wealthier of the river dwellers. In the 20th century they were able to motorize their canoes, refrigerate their catches, and use steamers for long-distance transport.
In most of Central Africa the scale of political management remained small; the power brokers were men who gained influence in local communities. Kingdoms were not the norm. In a few places, however, administration was organized on a scale that went beyond a single day’s march from the central homestead. The most striking of the early kingdoms was that of the Kuba peoples, at the heart of the southern forest. Kuba kings controlled the resources of a diverse ecological environment. They built up trade networks that enabled them to obtain copper from far afield and, later, even to buy such valuable ornamental assets as cowrie shells from the Indian Ocean, which were traded from community to community across Africa. The kings of the Kuba based their claim to power on a mystical exotic origin, far away down the rivers to the west, though such an alien pedigree bore no historical justification. Power had more to do with membership in influential local groups than with migration. Wealth, the ownership of livestock, the control of land, the mobilization of militias—these were the features of state formation in those rare areas where kingship could flourish. The Kuba knew government on a scale comparable to the early fish-trading states of the Luba and the raffia-weaving principalities of the Kongo kings.
Central Africa and the outer world
Development of the slave trade
In the 15th century Central Africa came into regular contact with the non-African world for the first time. Hitherto all external contact had been indirect and slow. Language, technology, and precious objects had spread to affect peoples’ lives, but no regular contact was maintained. In the 15th century Central Africa opened direct relations both with the Mediterranean world of Islam and with the Atlantic world of Christendom. The Islamic contacts remained limited until the 19th century, though Leo Africanus visited the northern states of Central Africa in the early 16th century and described them in Latin for the benefit of the Vatican, where he worked for a time.
The Atlantic opening had an earlier and more direct impact on Central Africa than the Mediterranean opening. In the 1470s a colony of Portuguese was settled on the offshore island of São Tomé. The Portuguese had been experimenting with colonial plantations for more than a century and already had settlements on Cape Verde and the Canary and Madeira islands. On São Tomé they established fields of sugarcane and built sugar mills. This prototype industry, which was later taken to Brazil and the Caribbean, became the richest branch of Europe’s colonial enterprise and had a lasting impact on the history of the African mainland. Settlers were unable to build plantations unaided and so recruited local support. European immigrants—predominantly, if not exclusively, male—sought out African consorts from the adjacent communities and established Creole families of plantation owners and managers. They also bought mainland slaves to work the estates. São Tomé became the first bridgehead for the great Atlantic slave trade, which was to have a deep and scarring influence on most of Central Africa.
Central African slaves taken to the island slave market were sold to three destinations. The strongest were sold to the Akan miners of the Gold Coast in West Africa, where royal Portuguese agents were able to buy up to half a ton of gold a year in exchange for imported commodities and slave workers from other parts of the continent. A second category of Central African slave was shipped to Europe and used both for domestic service in the town and for farm labour on the sparsely peopled estates that Portuguese Christians had conquered from Portuguese Muslims in the late Middle Ages. The third class of slave was put to work locally on the island.
The fortunes of the São Tomé plantations fluctuated over the next five centuries. Sugar gave way to coffee as the mainstay, and coffee in turn was replaced by cocoa in the 19th century. In the 20th century the island was at the centre of a humanitarian furor over the continued use of slaves on the plantations. Cocoa manufacturers boycotted the island, and the planters tried to improve the working conditions of their employees. In the meantime, however, Central Africa’s premier colony had been eclipsed by other European ventures on the mainland.
The second attempt to build a European colony in Central Africa occurred in the kingdom of Kongo surrounding the mouth of the Congo River. Portuguese traders exploited a division in the ruling class to gain a foothold at the court and the support of a royal claimant, who adopted Christianity and assumed the title of Afonso I. The Portuguese had hoped to find precious metals, as they had done in West Africa and were later to do in southeastern Africa, but the only source of profit they could realize was the buying of slaves for the São Tomé market. The king was under increasing pressure to use his army to raid his neighbours for captives. Even the Roman Catholic priests attached to the colonial mission found that they had to finance their activities by trading in slaves. The increasing profitability of slaving, and the lack of alternative sources of exportable wealth, placed growing pressures on the kingdom. Eventually, after the death of Afonso, popular rebellion broke out on a virulent scale. In order to preserve their foothold, the Portuguese equipped the governor of São Tomé with an army of 600 musketeers with which to reconquer their mainland base and install a pliant king in the Kongo capital. The Latin American tradition of the Iberian conquistador was thus introduced into Central Africa.
The great slaving campaigns of the conquistadores began in the 1570s after the Kongo wars had been quelled. The Portuguese harbour of Luanda was taken over by the Spanish Habsburgs in 1580, when the two crowns were united, and a series of armed assaults were launched on the states of the Mbundu peoples of the interior. The basis of the invasion was the rising demand for slaves to colonize the huge but sparsely peopled provinces of Brazil. Many slaves were captured directly or obtained as ransom for important chiefs. Many more were obtained from long-distance trade networks that penetrated ever deeper into the heart of Central Africa both by river and by footpath. The primary imports of the traders were textiles from India, England, North Africa, or Portugal itself. But Portugal, even with the backing of Spain, was not economically strong enough to maintain its monopoly over the foreign trade in Central Africa. By the end of the 16th century, competitors were frequenting the coast.
The Dutch were the second colonial power to influence the history of Central Africa. Their impact was felt in ways rather different from that of the Portuguese. They were more interested in commodities than in slaves and so opened up the market for ivory. The old hunting skills gained a new value as the market for tusks blossomed and commercial entrepreneurs organized caravans over long distances. Even the Twa forest dwellers were able to benefit from the hunting of elephants. By the mid-17th century, however, the Dutch had established their own American colonies and so joined in the scramble for slaves. They began to sell guns to their trading partners to facilitate the destruction of old communities and the capture of fugitives. The supply and sale of powder, lead, and muskets became profitable to the coastal brokers but devastating to the inland victims.
The geographic scale of the Central African slave trade was enormous. By the 18th century the supply routes to the Atlantic reached the middle of the continent and had begun to intersect with the long-distance trade to the Indian Ocean. As the trade spread, so did the search for political systems that could manage the traffic. The largest and most successful of the new merchant empires was the empire of the Lunda at the heart of the southern savanna. The Lunda people seem to have become aware of the slave trade as early as the 16th century. Wandering Lunda hunters and salt prospectors, known as Imbangala (or Jaga), entered Angola and recruited local followers into heavily armed bands that raided the countryside, sold their captives to European sailors, and eventually formed an alliance with the Portuguese conquistadores, who allowed them to set up their own kingdom in the Kasanje plain on the borders between Lunda and the European coastal enclaves. At first the kingdom of Kasanje acted solely as merchant brokers to the Portuguese, but, with the rise of rival European buyers on the northern Congo coast, its network spread farther afield. As the market expanded, so did the sources of supply. In the Lunda hinterland a powerful ruler adopting the title of Mwata Yamvo became chief supplier to the Kasanje intermediaries. The Lunda empire spread its commercial network not only to the west but also eastward until it had outlets to the lower Zambezi River and the Indian Ocean. The Mwata Yamvo of the west and his viceroy, the Mwata Kazembe of the east, effectively monopolized the slave trade of the heartland. As the Atlantic market grew, Lunda influence spread both north toward the forest and south into the dry plain of the upper Zambezi. In the early 19th century the court began to receive ambassadorial visits from representatives of the king of Portugal, and some years later echoes of the Mwata’s greatness reached the Protestant explorer-missionaries of the far south, such as David Livingstone.
In the 18th century the Dutch were replaced by the French as the leading slave merchants on the north coast of the Congo region as the scale of the trade grew rapidly. Congo captives became the dominant population in Saint-Domingue, later called Haiti, which rose to be the richest of all the world’s colonies and before 1791 the largest supplier of sugar. The slaves carried with them some of their cultural values and tried to reconstruct their communities under the shadow of the great plantation houses. Bantu vocabulary and personal names were added to the Creole speech of the Caribbean. Kongo religious practices were preserved in a nominally Christian colonial society when attempts were made to minimize the insecurity and suffering by worship and ritual. But, however much the slaves tried to reconstruct Central African society in the New World, their departure left a serious mark on the Old World. The scale of the French trade rose to about 10,000 men, women, and children each year. The demographic hemorrhage was felt in spreading ripples, and the already frail population of Central Africa was further weakened. Not until the outbreak of revolution in France, and later in Haiti, did the French trade begin to decline.
Although the Central African population had declined and did not begin to recover until the beginning of the 20th century, two new crops introduced to the region from the Americas enhanced the productive capacity of the land and helped Central Africans recover from the ravages of slaving. The first was corn (maize), which required the same agricultural skills as millet and so could be easily adopted. Corn had the advantage over millet that its grain was wrapped in an envelope of leaves that protected the crop from predatory birds. Corn also had higher yields than millet where soil and water were sufficient, which increased food production and partly compensated for the loss of field hands to the slavers. The second new crop was cassava, or manioc, a root crop easily adopted by tuber farmers but more difficult for grain farmers to accept. It too was better protected from rodents—and even from marauders—than traditional crops. Cassava could be left in the ground when farmers had to flee in war and then recovered whole and edible on their return. To those unfamiliar with cassava, however, it could be dangerous, because the protective poisons in the plant, which made it inedible to vermin, had to be washed out before it was cooked for human consumption.
New crops from outside brought some small benefit to the region, but new diseases had the opposite effect. The growth of long-distance communication led to the spread of smallpox along the slave trails. It was a disease much feared both in the villages and on the slave ships. During serious periods of warfare and raiding, populations were weakened by famine and so easily fell prey to measles and pneumonia. Central Africa was also a malarial zone, although the disease was most deadly for Europeans. Equally dangerous to Africans, especially in the 20th century, were epidemics of sleeping sickness, which periodically spread through the region. As though this were not enough, Central Africa was attacked in the early 20th century by the world influenza pandemic. The already weakened population became thinner still and did not recover until well into the middle of the century.
The Central African slave trade continued into the 19th century, however. The Portuguese moved back into northern Central Africa when the French trade declined, and Brazil bought more slaves than ever before from Central Africa in the first half of the century, continuing to use slaves until the 1880s. Spain also entered the market to buy slaves for its surviving American colony in Cuba, where the tobacco industry combined the modernization of the railway age with the old plantation use of slaves.
The abolition movement helped to end the slave trade by the late 19th century, although slavery continued in Africa into the 20th century. While the end of four centuries of international slaving might have been expected to lead to a new era of freedom and opportunity in Central Africa, this did not happen. Instead, a whole new set of foreign forces began to penetrate the area. The first of these came from the long-delayed growth of international commerce on the northern border of the region.
