adrenergic drug

Also known as: sympathomimetic drug

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adrenergic drug, any of various drugs that mimic or interfere with the functioning of the sympathetic nervous system by affecting the release or action of norepinephrine and epinephrine. These hormones, which are also known as noradrenaline and adrenaline, are secreted by the adrenal gland, hence their association with the term adrenergic. The primary actions of norepinephrine and epinephrine are to mediate the “fight-or-flight response.” Thus, they constrict blood vessels (vasoconstriction), which increases blood pressure, and accelerate the rate and force of contractions of the heart. Adrenergic drugs that produce or inhibit these effects are known as sympathomimetic agents and sympatholytic agents, respectively.

Sympathomimetic agents

Sympathomimetic agents stimulate the sympathetic nervous system by prompting the neuronal release or mimicking the effects of epinephrine, norepinephrine, and other catecholamines (the class of chemicals to which the adrenergic hormones belong). These agents include drugs that act on adrenergic receptors (adrenoceptors) directly or indirectly, such as by blocking the breakdown or neuronal uptake of catecholamines. Because sympathomimetic drugs raise blood pressure and increase heart rate, they are useful in treating systemic trauma, including bronchial asthma, shock, and cardiac arrest.

Direct-acting sympathomimetics are classified based on their selectivity for adrenoceptors, of which there are several types, including α₁, β₁, and β₂. Substances that activate β₂-adrenoceptors (known as β₂-adrenoceptor agonists) are some of the most widely used direct-acting sympathomimetics, being valuable especially in the treatment of asthma because of their ability to relax smooth muscle tissue in the airways of the lungs. However, none of the available drugs are completely selective for the β₂-adrenoceptor, and they tend to produce unwanted effects on the heart, such as increased heart rate and disturbances of cardiac rhythm, through their action on cardiac β₁-adrenoceptors. To reduce these side effects, the β₂ agonists are usually given by inhalation, which increases pulmonary exposure to the drug while lowering systemic exposure and therefore activation of cardiac receptors. Examples of β₂ agonists include terbutaline, albuterol, and metaproterenol. Some direct-acting agents are nonselective; for example, isoproterenol produces effects at all β receptors, and the (+) and (−) isoforms of dobutamine produce varying effects at α and β receptors.

Indirect-acting sympathomimetic drugs include ephedrine, which occasionally is used as a nasal decongestant, and amphetamines. These substances act mainly through mechanisms that result in the release of catecholamines from their storage areas in nerve terminals. Amphetamine-like drugs also have strong effects on the brain, causing feelings of excitement and euphoria as well as reducing appetite, the latter effect leading to their use in the treatment of obesity. Their effects on the brain underlie their recreational use and their use as agents to enhance athletic performance. These drugs are liable to cause addiction, and overdosage may have dangerous cardiovascular and psychological effects. Methylphenidate, an amphetamine-like compound sold under the trade name Ritalin, often is used in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

The actions of catecholamines that are released as a result of direct or indirect sympathetic neuronal activation are terminated when they are recaptured by sympathetic neurons, a process that involves a selective transport mechanism in the neuronal membrane. Various drugs block this transport system and thus enhance the effects of sympathetic nerve activity; the most important examples are cocaine and certain antidepressant drugs such as imipramine. Overdosage with these drugs results in overactivity of the sympathetic system and the occurrence of cardiac arrhythmias. The effects of these drugs on brain function, which are of more clinical importance than their peripheral sympathomimetic effects, may be due to this action of inhibiting the uptake of catecholamines into adrenergic neurons in the brain.

Sympatholytic agents

Sympatholytic agents (sometimes called adrenergic antagonists) block or inhibit the release or activity of catecholamines. These agents produce their effects through various mechanisms, which may involve binding directly to the different α or β adrenoceptors or disrupting sympathetic activity peripherally or centrally. Substances that act in the central nervous system, and thus affect the brain, are known as centrally acting sympatholytic drugs. Important physiological effects of sympatholytic agents include the dilation of blood vessels (vasodilation), which lowers blood pressure, and the slowing of heart rate.

Drugs that bind to and block α₁-adrenoceptors (known as α₁-adrenoceptor antagonists) inhibit the ability of catecholamines to constrict the blood vessels. Since most blood vessels are subject to the continuous vasoconstrictor influence of sympathetic nerves, blocking these adrenoceptors causes a widespread relaxation of the blood vessels. These drugs are sometimes used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure) and cardiac failure. Antagonists of α₁-adrenoceptors can also be used in the treatment of some urinary bladder dysfunction conditions because they block the contraction of the sphincter at the bladder outlet that is mediated by α₁-adrenoceptors. Examples of α₁ antagonists include prazosin and phenoxybenzamine.

Drugs that block β-adrenoceptors (often referred to as beta-blockers) are extremely useful in treating various kinds of cardiovascular diseases, particularly hypertension, arrhythmias, and angina pectoris (chest pain). The effect is usually achieved by blocking the β₁-adrenoceptor; however, some drugs also block the β₂-adrenoceptor. In some patients, however, blocking adrenoceptors can give rise to various unwanted side effects, such as constriction of the bronchial smooth muscle, which can be dangerous to patients with asthma, and constriction of certain blood vessels, which may cause patients to have cold hands and feet. Beta-adrenoceptor antagonists are also useful in controlling muscle tremors and anxiety that result from overactivity of the sympathetic system. Examples of β-adrenoceptor antagonists include propranolol and carteolol, an agent used in the treatment of glaucoma.

Some centrally acting sympatholytic agents work by stimulating postsynaptic α₂-adrenoceptors in the brain (postsynaptic refers to the receptors’ position beyond, or downstream of, the synapse, or site of transmission of electric impulses between neurons). Because binding activates the receptor, these drugs are known as α₂-adrenoceptor agonists. They are used primarily in the treatment of hypertension, since central α₂-adrenoceptor activation suppresses sympathetic activity. However, drugs that activate central postsynaptic α₂-adrenoceptors also tend to partially activate these receptors’ counterparts in smooth muscle in peripheral tissues, where activation paradoxically causes vasoconstriction. Thus, centrally acting α₂-adrenoceptor agonists are capable of producing both vasodilation and vasoconstriction, though these effects can be driven more toward one or the other depending on the route of administration. One example is clonidine, a drug that is potent and effective in lowering blood pressure when given orally or via a transdermal patch (a patch applied to the skin) but that can cause a rapid and marked rise in blood pressure when administered intravenously.

This article was most recently revised and updated by Kara Rogers.