Formation of complexes
Until the late 1960s there were few complexes of the alkali metal cations with organic molecules. Specialized biological molecules such as valinomycin were known to complex selectively the potassium cation K+ for transport across cell membranes, but synthetic ionophores (molecules that can form complexes with ions) were rare. All the alkali cations have a charge of +1 and, except for lithium, are chemically similar and rather inert. The only significant difference between one alkali cation and another is the size.
The synthesis of crown ethers by American chemist Charles J. Pedersen in 1967 provided size-selective cyclic molecules consisting of ether oxygens forming a ring or “crown” that could complex a cation of the right size to fit into the hole in the centre of the molecule. In some cases two crown ether molecules can encapsulate a cation in a “sandwich” fashion. For example, K+ just fits into the centre of an 18-crown-6 ring (18 atoms in the ring, 12 of which are carbon atoms and 6 are ether oxygen atoms) to form a 1:1 complex (that is, 1 cation:1 crown ether), K+(18C6). Cs+ is too large to fit into the ring but can be complexed on one side to form the Cs+(18C6) complex or can be sandwiched between two 18-crown-6 molecules to form the 1:2 complex, Cs+(18C6)2. Thus, the selectivity of a crown ether for a particular cation depends on the ring size. Common crown ethers are 12-crown-4, 15-crown-5, and 18-crown-6. These molecules are selective for Li+, Na+, and K+, respectively.
Even greater affinity for alkali cations was achieved by the synthesis of cryptands by French chemist Jean-Marie Lehn in 1968 and spherands by American chemist Donald Cram in 1979. These are three-dimensional molecules with an internal cavity or crypt that can completely encapsulate the alkali cation. By synthesizing molecules with different cavity sizes, the selectivity for particular cations over those of the “wrong” size to fit in the cavity can be controlled. It should be noted, however, that these molecules are not rigid and that flexibility of the framework can alter the cavity size to accommodate alkali cations of different sizes, although with differences in the strength of complexation.
Since the initial syntheses of crown ethers and cryptands, thousands of complexants for cations of various sizes, charges, and geometries have been synthesized. This has led to an entirely new branch of chemistry called supramolecular chemistry.
Analytical chemistry of the alkali metals
Classical methods of separation and analysis of alkali metals are rather difficult and time consuming. For lithium they include such procedures as selective extraction of lithium chloride into organic solvents and the detection of lithium with azo dyes that give highly sensitive colour reactions in alkaline solutions. A modification of the uranyl acetate test (the precipitation of an insoluble sodium salt with uranyl acetate) has been used as a standard test for the presence of sodium. The use of a cobaltinitrite solution permits separation of potassium from sodium by precipitation of the insoluble potassium salt. There are essentially no satisfactory analytical methods for rubidium and cesium based on the use of reagents in solution.
Classical methods of separation of the alkali metals have been largely supplanted by chromatographic elution. Strongly acidic cation-exchange resins and aqueous acidic solutions are used. Generally the affinity increases with atomic weight so that the ions are eluted in the order Fr+ > Cs+ > Rb+ > K+ > Na+ > Li+, which is the order of decreasing size of the hydrated ions. Ion-exchange resins that are specific for lithium have been developed. Macrocyclic compounds such as crown ethers and cryptands that are selective for particular alkali metal ions have been synthesized. They form cationic complexes that can be dissolved in organic solvents such as chloroform (CHCl3) with counterions such as picrate (C6H2[NO2]3O-).
The characteristic flame colours of the alkali metals (red, yellow, violet, red, and blue for Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs, respectively) are qualitative indicators of the modern analytical methods used to determine the concentrations of alkali-metal salts in aqueous solution. The intensities of the characteristic spectral lines in emission after excitation by a flame or ICP (inductively coupled plasma) give quantitative measures of the individual alkali metal concentration in the parts per million range or lower. Determination of one alkali metal in the presence of another, however, can result in interference, which can be reduced by using specially prepared standard solutions that contain known amounts of the interfering metals.
The analysis of the alkali-metal samples for the presence of nonmetallic elements, such as oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, requires specialized techniques. The oxygen content of sodium and potassium samples can be determined by extraction of the free alkali metal with mercury, leaving behind mercury-insoluble oxides and carbonates, which can subsequently be analyzed by means of solution methods. The oxygen content of rubidium and cesium can be accurately determined by precise measurement of the freezing point of these two elements.
The carbon content of alkali metals can be analyzed by oxidation of the alkali metal in pure oxygen, followed by infrared measurement of the carbon dioxide generated during combustion. For the analysis of nitride in lithium, the nitride commonly is converted to ammonia, and the ammonia is measured by colorimetric analysis.
Frederick TepperJames L. Dye