aquatic ecosystem

Water conditions favourable to the growth of reefs exist in tropical or near-tropical surface waters. Regional differences may result from the presence or absence of upwelling currents of colder waters or from the varying relation of precipitation to evaporation.

During the 1980s and ’90s a series of experiments demonstrated trophic cascades by adding or removing top carnivores, such as bass (Micropterus) and yellow perch (Perca flavescens), to or from freshwater lakes. Those experiments showed that trophic

…as an air breather, an aquatic animal may find it necessary to pass across the respiratory surfaces a relatively larger volume of the external medium. Moreover, the diffusion rate of oxygen is much lower in water than in air. The problem is further compounded by the higher density (1,000 times…

In aquatic reptiles diving occurs during these pauses, which may last an hour or more in some turtles and aquatic snakes. Even terrestrial reptiles show intermittent periods of breathing and breath holding. The metabolic rate of most reptiles is one-fifth to one-tenth that of birds or…

Marine waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Earth. In some places the ocean is deeper than Mount Everest is high; for example, the Mariana Trench and the Tonga Trench in the western part of the Pacific Ocean reach depths in excess of 10,000 metres…

…of living organisms in free water on continental landmasses.

Crustaceans play many roles in aquatic ecosystems. The planktonic forms—such as the copepod Calanus and the krill Euphausia—graze on the microscopic plants floating in the sea and in turn are eaten by fishes, seabirds, and whales. Benthic (bottom-dwelling) crustaceans are a food source for fish, and some whales feed extensively…

Echinoderms are efficient scavengers of decaying matter on the seafloor, and they prey upon a variety of small organisms, thereby helping to regulate their numbers. When present in large numbers, sea urchins can devastate sea-grass beds in the tropics, adversely affecting the…

The microorganisms inhabiting aquatic environments are collectively referred to as plankton; phytoplankton refers to the photosynthetic microbes (primarily algae), whereas protozoa, and other small animals, are zooplankton. Phytoplankton is responsible for converting solar energy into chemical energy—the components of plankton cells that serve as food for

…of great importance within the ecological food chains. The diverse adaptations for feeding are partly responsible for the success of this abundant order. Many of the colourful perciforms that occur around coral reefs are herbivorous fishes, the food of which consists mainly of plankton, algae on corals, and other reef…