- Key People:
- Georg Brandt
In its most stable elemental state, arsenic is a steel-gray, brittle solid with low thermal and electrical conductivity. Although some forms of elemental arsenic are metal-like, the element is best classified as a nonmetal. Other forms have been reported but are not well characterized, including especially a yellow, metastable form, which may consist of As4 molecules analogous to white phosphorus, P4. Arsenic sublimes at 613 °C, and in the vapor it exists as As4 molecules, which do not begin to dissociate until about 800 °C; dissociation to As2 molecules becomes complete at about 1,700 °C.
The electronic structure of the arsenic atom, 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p3, resembles those of nitrogen and phosphorus in that there are five electrons in the outermost shell, but it differs from them in having 18 electrons in the penultimate shell instead of two or eight. The addition of ten positive charges to the nucleus during the filling of the five 3d orbitals frequently causes a general contraction of the electronic cloud and a concomitant increase in electronegativity of the elements. In other groups of the periodic table this is clearly shown. Thus, it seems generally accepted that zinc is more electronegative than magnesium and, similarly, that gallium is more electronegative than aluminum. The difference diminishes, however, in the next groups, and many authorities do not agree that germanium is more electronegative than silicon, although an abundance of chemical evidence appears to indicate that this is so. The similar transition from penultimate 8-shell to 18-shell element in passing from phosphorus to arsenic might also produce an increase in the electronegativity of arsenic over phosphorus, but this remains controversial.
The outer-shell similarity of the two elements suggests that arsenic, like phosphorus, can form three covalent bonds per atom, with an additional lone pair of electrons left unbonded. The oxidation state of arsenic should, therefore, be either +3 or −3 depending on the relative electronegativity values of arsenic and the elements with which it is combined. The possibility should also exist of utilizing the outer d orbitals to expand the octet, thereby allowing arsenic to form five bonds. This possibility is realized only in compounds with fluorine. The availability of the lone pair for complex formation (through electron donation) appears much less in the arsenic atom than in phosphorus and nitrogen, as evidenced by the chemistry of the element.
Arsenic itself is stable in dry air, but in moist air it tends to become coated with a black oxide. Sublimed arsenic vapor readily burns in air to form arsenious oxide. The free element is essentially unaffected by water, bases, or nonoxidizing acids, but it can be oxidized by nitric acid to the +5 state. Halogens attack arsenic, as does sulfur, and the element will combine directly with many metals forming arsenides.
Analytical chemistry
Qualitatively, arsenic may be detected by precipitation as the yellow arsenious sulfide from hydrochloric acid of 25 percent or greater concentration. Trace amounts of arsenic are usually determined by conversion to arsine. The latter can be detected by the so-called Marsh test, in which arsine is thermally decomposed, forming a black arsenic mirror inside a narrow tube, or by the Gutzeit method, in which a test paper impregnated with mercuric chloride darkens when exposed to arsine because of the formation of free mercury.
Biological and physiological significance
The toxicity of arsenic and its compounds varies widely, ranging from the exceedingly poisonous arsine and its organic derivatives (see arsenic poisoning) to elemental arsenic itself, which is relatively inert. Arsenical compounds in general are skin irritants, which easily cause dermatitis. Protection against inhalation of arsenic-containing dusts is recommended, but most poisoning appears to come from ingestion. The maximum tolerable concentration of arsenic in dusts during an eight-hour day is 0.5 milligrams per cubic metre. For arsine, exposure of similar duration requires that the concentration be less than 0.05 parts per million in the air. In addition to the many uses of arsenic compounds as herbicides and pesticides, they have in several instances been employed as pharmacological agents. The first successful antisyphilitic agent, for example, was an arsenic compound, “Salvarsan,” or “606,” or 3,3′-diamino-4,4′-dihydroxyarsenobenzene dihydrochloride.