behaviourism
- Key People:
- Leonard Bloomfield
behaviourism, a highly influential academic school of psychology that dominated psychological theory between the two world wars. Classical behaviourism, prevalent in the first third of the 20th century, was concerned exclusively with measurable and observable data and excluded ideas, emotions, and the consideration of inner mental experience and activity in general. In behaviourism, the organism is seen as “responding” to conditions (stimuli) set by the outer environment and by inner biological processes.
The previously dominant school of thought, structuralism, conceived of psychology as the science of consciousness, experience, or mind; although bodily activities were not excluded, they were considered significant chiefly in their relations to mental phenomena. The characteristic method of structuralism was thus introspection—observing and reporting on the working of one’s own mind.
The early formulations of behaviourism were a reaction by U.S. psychologist John B. Watson against the introspective psychologies. In Behaviorism (1924), Watson wrote that “Behaviorism claims that ‘consciousness’ is neither a definable nor a usable concept; that it is merely another word for the ‘soul’ of more ancient times. The old psychology is thus dominated by a subtle kind of religious philosophy.” Watson believed that behaviourism “attempted to make a fresh, clean start in psychology, breaking both with current theories and with traditional concepts and terminology” (from Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist, 3rd ed., 1929). Introspection was to be discarded; only such observations were to be considered admissible as could be made by independent observers of the same object or event—exactly as in physics or chemistry. In this way psychology was to become “a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science.” However abstract these proposals may seem, they have had a revolutionary influence on modern psychology and social science and on our conception of ourselves.
Watson’s objectivist leanings were presaged by many developments in the history of thought, and his work typified strong trends that had been emerging in biology and psychology since the late 19th century. Thus, Watson’s desire to “bury subjective subject matter” received widespread support. Between the early 1920s and mid-century, the methods of behaviourism dominated U.S. psychology and had wide international repercussions. Although the chief alternatives to behaviourism (e.g., Gestalt psychology and psychoanalysis) advocated methods based on experiential data, even these alternatives accommodated the objectivist approach by emphasizing a need for objective validation of experientially based hypotheses.
The period 1912–30 (roughly) may be called that of classical behaviourism. Watson was then the dominant figure, but many others were soon at work giving their own systematic twists to the development of the program. Classical behaviourism was dedicated to proving that phenomena formerly believed to require introspective study (such as thinking, imagery, emotions, or feeling) might be understood in terms of stimulus and response. Classical behaviourism was further characterized by a strict determinism based on the belief that every response is elicited by a specific stimulus.
A derivative form of classical behaviourism known as neobehaviourism evolved from 1930 through the late 1940s. In this approach, psychologists attempted to translate the general methodology prescribed by Watson into a detailed, experimentally based theory of adaptive behaviour. This era was dominated by learning theorists Clark L. Hull and B.F. Skinner; Skinner’s thought was the direct descendant of Watson’s intellectual heritage and became dominant in the field after the mid-1950s. Other important behaviourists included Hull-influenced Kenneth W. Spence; Neal Miller, who claimed that neuroscience is the most productive avenue in psychological research; cognitive theorist Edward C. Tolman; and Edwin R. Guthrie. Tolman and others brought about a liberalization of strict behaviourist doctrine. The posture toward objectivism remained fundamentally the same, even while admitting the existence of intervening (i.e., mental) variables, accepting verbal reports, and branching into areas such as perception.
A natural outgrowth of behaviourist theory was behaviour therapy, which rose to prominence after World War II and focused on modifying observable behaviour, rather than the thoughts and feelings of the patient (as in psychoanalysis). In this approach, emotional problems are thought to result from faulty acquired behaviour patterns or the failure to learn effective responses. The aim of behaviour therapy, also known as behaviour modification, is therefore to change behaviour patterns. See also conditioning.
