General properties of the group
The properties of the carbon group elements and those of their compounds are intermediate between properties associated with the elements of the adjacent boron and nitrogen groups. In all groups the metallic properties, resulting from the tendency to hold valence electrons more loosely, increase with atomic number. Within the carbon group, more than in any other, the change from nonmetallic to metallic character with increasing atomic number is particularly apparent. Carbon is a true nonmetal in every sense. Lead is a true metal. Silicon is almost completely nonmetallic; tin is almost completely metallic. Germanium is metallic in appearance and in a number of its other physical properties (see Table), but the properties of many of its compounds are those of derivatives of nonmetals. These changes are consequences of increase in atomic size with substantial screening of the larger nuclear charge by intervening electronic shells, as evidenced by decrease in ionization energy (energy required to remove an electron) and electronegativity power to attract electrons with increasing atomic number.
| carbon | silicon | germanium | tin | lead | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| atomic number | 6 | 14 | 32 | 50 | 82 |
| atomic weight | 12.011 | 28.086 | 72.64 | 118.71 | 207.2 |
| colour of element | colourless (diamond), black (graphite) | gray | white metallic | white metallic (beta), gray (alpha) | bluish white metallic |
| melting point (°C) | 3,700 | 1,414 | 938.25 | 231.93 | 327.5 |
| boiling point (°C) | 4,027 | 3,265 | 2,833 | 2,602 | 1,749 |
| density (grams per cubic centimetre) | 1.9–2.3 (graphite), 3.15–3.53 (diamond) | 2.33 (25 °C) | 5.32 (25 °C) | 5.75 (alpha), 7.31 (beta) | 11.35 |
| oxidation states | −4, (+2), +4 | −4, (+2), +4 | −4, +2, +4 | (−4), +2, +4 | (−4), +2, +4 |
| mass number of most common isotopes (terrestrial abundance, percent) | 12 (98.89), 13 (1.11) | 28 (92.23), 29 (4.68), 30 (3.09) | 70 (20.84), 72 (27.54), 73 (7.73), 74 (36.28), 76 (7.61) | 112 (0.97), 114 (0.66), 115 (0.34), 116 (14.54), 117 (7.68), 118 (24.22), 119 (8.59), 120 (32.58), 122 (4.63), 124 (5.79) | 204 (1.4), 206 (24.1), 207 (22.1), 208 (52.4) |
| radioactive isotopes (mass numbers) | 8–11, 14–22 | 22–27, 31–44 | 60–69, 71, 75–89 | 100–111, 113, 121, 123, 125–137 | 181–205, 209–215 |
| heat of fusion (calories per mole/kilojoules per mole) | 25,100 (105) | 12,000 (50.2) | 7,600 (31.8) | 1,700 (7) | 1,140 (4.77) |
| heat of vaporization (kilojoules per mole) | 715 | 359 | 334 | 290 | 178 |
| heat of sublimation (kilocalories per gram atom) | 170 | 85 | — | 78 | 47.5 |
| heat capacity (joules per gram Kelvin) | 0.709 | 0.712 | 0.32 | 0.227 | 0.13 |
| critical temperature (°C) | — | about 4,920 | |||
| critical pressure (atmospheres) | — | 1,450 | |||
| electrical resistivity (microhm-centimetres) | 1,375 | 10 | 4.6 × 107 | 11 | 20.648 |
| hardness (Mohs scale) | 0.5 | 6.5 | 6 | 1.5 | 1.5 |
| crystal structure | cubic (diamond), hexagonal (graphite) | cubic | cubic | cubic, tetragonal | close-packed, metallic |
| radius: covalent (angstroms) | 0.76 | 1.11 | 1.2 | 1.39 | 1.46 |
| radius: ionic (angstroms) | 0.3 | 0.54 | 0.67 | 0.83 | 0.92 |
| ionization energy (kilojoules per mole): first | 1,086.50 | 786.5 | 762 | 708.6 | 715.6 |
| ionization energy (kilojoules per mole): second | 2,352.60 | 1,577.10 | 1,537.50 | 1,411.80 | 1,450.50 |
| ionization energy (kilojoules per mole): third | 4,620.50 | 3,231.60 | 3,302.10 | 2,943.00 | 3,081.50 |
| ionization energy (kilojoules per mole): fourth | 6,222.70 | 4,355.50 | 4,411 | 3,930.30 | 4,083 |
| electronegativity (Sanderson) | 2.75 | 2.14 | 2.62 | 1.49 | 2.29 |
| electronegativity (Pauling) | 2.55 | 1.9 | 2.01 | 1.96 | 2.33 |
Crystal structure
In the solid state, elemental carbon, silicon, germanium, and gray tin (defined as alpha [α] tin) exist as cubic crystals, based upon a three-dimensional arrangement of bonds. Each atom is covalently bonded to four neighbouring atoms in such a way that they form the corners of a tetrahedron (a solid consisting of four three-sided faces). A practical result is that no discrete small molecules of these elements, such as those formed by nitrogen, phosphorus, or arsenic, can be distinguished; instead, any solid particle or fragment of one of these elements, irrespective of size, is uniformly bonded throughout, and, therefore, the whole fragment can be considered as a giant molecule. Decreasing melting points, boiling points, and decreasing heat energies associated with fusion (melting), sublimation (change from solid to gas), and vaporization (change from liquid to gas) among these four elements, with increasing atomic number and atomic size, indicate a parallel weakening of the covalent bonds in this type of structure. The actual or probable arrangement of valence electrons is often impossible to determine, and, instead, relative energy states of the electrons, in the ground, or least energetic, state of the atom are considered. Thus, the same trend of nonmetallic toward metallic states is indicated by decreasing hardness and decreasing single-bond energy between atoms. Carbon crystallizes in two forms, as diamond and as graphite; diamond stands apart from all other elemental forms in the extreme stability of its crystal structure, whereas graphite has a layer structure. As may be expected, cleavage between layers of graphite is much easier to effect than rupture within a layer. The crystal structures of white beta (β) tin and elemental lead are clearly metallic structures. In a metal, the valence electrons are free to move from atom to atom, and they give the metal its electrical conductivity.