Orbital resonances
There are stable configurations in the restricted three-body problem that are not stationary in the rotating frame. If, for example, Jupiter and the Sun are the two massive bodies, these stable configurations occur when the mean motions of Jupiter and the small particle—here an asteroid—are near a ratio of small integers. The orbital mean motions are then said to be nearly commensurate, and an asteroid that is trapped near such a mean motion commensurability is said to be in an orbital resonance with Jupiter. For example, the Trojan asteroids librate (oscillate) around the 1:1 orbital resonance (i.e., the orbital period of Jupiter is in a 1:1 ratio with the orbital period of the Trojan asteroids); the asteroid Thule librates around the 4:3 orbital resonance; and several asteroids in the Hilda group librate around the 3:2 orbital resonance. There are several such stable orbital resonances among the satellites of the major planets and one involving Pluto and the planet Neptune. The analysis based on the restricted three-body problem cannot be used for the satellite resonances, however, except for the 4:3 resonance between Saturn’s satellites Titan and Hyperion, since the participants in the satellite resonances usually have comparable masses.
Although the asteroid Griqua librates around the 2:1 resonance with Jupiter, and Alinda librates around the 3:1 resonance, the orbital commensurabilities 2:1, 7:3, 5:2, and 3:1 are characterized by an absence of asteroids in an otherwise rather highly populated, uniform distribution spanning all of the commensurabilities. These are the Kirkwood gaps in the distribution of asteroids, and the recent understanding of their creation and maintenance has introduced into celestial mechanics an entirely new concept of irregular, or chaotic, orbits in a system whose equations of motion are entirely deterministic.
Chaotic orbits
The French astronomer Michel Hénon and the American astronomer Carl Heiles discovered that when a system exhibiting periodic motion, such as a pendulum, is perturbed by an external force that is also periodic, some initial conditions lead to motions where the state of the system becomes essentially unpredictable (within some range of system states) at some time in the future, whereas initial conditions within some other set produce quasiperiodic or predictable behaviour. The unpredictable behaviour is called chaotic, and initial conditions that produce it are said to lie in a chaotic zone. If the chaotic zone is bounded, in the sense that only limited ranges of initial values of the variables describing the motion lead to chaotic behaviour, the uncertainty in the state of the system in the future is limited by the extent of the chaotic zone; that is, values of the variables in the distant future are completely uncertain only within those ranges of values within the chaotic zone. This complete uncertainty within the zone means the system will eventually come arbitrarily close to any set of values of the variables within the zone if given sufficient time. Chaotic orbits were first realized in the asteroid belt.
A periodic term in the expansion of the disturbing function for a typical asteroid orbit becomes more important in influencing the motion of the asteroid if the frequency with which it changes sign is very small and its coefficient is relatively large. For asteroids orbiting near a mean motion commensurability with Jupiter, there are generally several terms in the disturbing function with large coefficients and small frequencies that are close but not identical. These “resonant” terms often dominate the perturbations of the asteroid motion so much that all the higher-frequency terms can be neglected in determining a first approximation to the perturbed motion. This neglect is equivalent to averaging the higher-frequency terms to zero; the low-frequency terms change only slightly during the averaging. If one of the frequencies vanishes on the average, the periodic term becomes nearly constant, or secular, and the asteroid is locked into an exact orbital resonance near the particular mean motion commensurability. The mean motions are not exactly commensurate in such a resonance, however, since the motion of the asteroid orbital node or perihelion is always involved (except for the 1:1 Trojan resonances).
For example, for the 3:1 commensurability, the angle θ = λA - 3λJ + ϖA is the argument of one of the important periodic terms whose variation can vanish (zero frequency). Here λ = Ω + ω + l is the mean longitude, the subscripts A and J refer to the asteroid and Jupiter, respectively, and ϖ = Ω + ω is the longitude of perihelion (see ). Within resonance, the angle θ librates, or oscillates, around a constant value as would a pendulum around its equilibrium position at the bottom of its swing. The larger the amplitude of the equivalent pendulum, the larger its velocity at the bottom of its swing. If the velocity of the pendulum at the bottom of its swing, or, equivalently, the maximum rate of change of the angle θ, is sufficiently high, the pendulum will swing over the top of its support and be in a state of rotation instead of libration. The maximum value of the rate of change of θ for which θ remains an angle of libration (periodically reversing its variation) instead of one of rotation (increasing or decreasing monotonically) is defined as the half-width of the resonance.
Another term with nearly zero frequency when the asteroid is near the 3:1 commensurability has the argument θ′ = λA - λJ + 2ϖJ. The substitution of the longitude of Jupiter’s perihelion for that of the asteroid means that the rates of change of θ and θ′ will be slightly different. As the resonances are not separated much in frequency, there may exist values of the mean motion of the asteroid where both θ and θ′ would be angles of libration if either resonance existed in the absence of the other. The resonances are said to overlap in this case, and the attempt by the system to librate simultaneously about both resonances for some initial conditions leads to chaotic orbital behaviour. The important characteristic of the chaotic zone for asteroid motion near a mean motion commensurability with Jupiter is that it includes a region where the asteroid’s orbital eccentricity is large. During the variation of the elements over the entire chaotic zone as time increases, large eccentricities must occasionally be reached. For asteroids near the 3:1 commensurability with Jupiter, the orbit then crosses that of Mars, whose gravitational interaction in a close encounter can remove the asteroid from the 3:1 zone.
By numerically integrating many orbits whose initial conditions spanned the 3:1 Kirkwood gap region in the asteroid belt, Jack Wisdom, an American dynamicist who developed a powerful means of analyzing chaotic motions, found that the chaotic zone around this gap precisely matched the physical extent of the gap. There are no observable asteroids with orbits within the chaotic zone, but there are many just outside extremes of the zone. Other Kirkwood gaps can be similarly accounted for. The realization that orbits governed by Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation could have chaotic properties and that such properties could solve a long-standing problem in the celestial mechanics of the solar system is a major breakthrough in the subject.
The n-body problem
The general problem of n bodies, where n is greater than three, has been attacked vigorously with numerical techniques on powerful computers. Celestial mechanics in the solar system is ultimately an n-body problem, but the special configurations and relative smallness of the perturbations have allowed quite accurate descriptions of motions (valid for limited time periods) with various approximations and procedures without any attempt to solve the complete problem of n bodies. Examples are the restricted three-body problem to determine the effect of Jupiter’s perturbations of the asteroids and the use of successive approximations of series solutions to sequentially add the effects of smaller and smaller perturbations for the motion of the Moon. In the general n-body problem, all bodies have arbitrary masses, initial velocities, and positions; the bodies interact through Newton’s law of gravitation, and one attempts to determine the subsequent motion of all the bodies. Many numerical solutions for the motion of quite large numbers of gravitating particles have been successfully completed where the precise motion of individual particles is usually less important than the statistical behaviour of the group.
Numerical solutions
Numerical solutions of the exact equations of motion for n bodies can be formulated. Each body is subject to the gravitational attraction of all the others, and it may be subject to other forces as well. It is relatively easy to write the expression for the instantaneous acceleration (equation of motion) of each body if the position of all the other bodies is known, and expressions for all the other forces can be written (as they can for gravitational forces) in terms of the relative positions of the particles and other defining characteristics of the particle and its environment. Each particle is allowed to move under its instantaneous acceleration for a short time step. Its velocity and position are thereby changed, and the new values of the variables are used to calculate the acceleration for the next time step, and so forth. Of course, the real position and velocity of the particle after each time step will differ from the calculated values by errors of two types. One type results from the fact that the acceleration is not really constant over the time step, and the other from the rounding off or truncation of the numbers at every step of the calculation. The first type of error is decreased by taking shorter time steps. But this means more numerical operations must be carried out over a given span of time, and this increases the round-off error for a given precision of the numbers being carried in the calculation. The design of numerical algorithms, as well as the choice of precisions and step sizes that maximize the speed of the calculation while keeping the errors within reasonable bounds, is almost an art form developed by extensive experience and ingenuity. For example, a scheme exists for extrapolating the step size to zero in order to find the change in the variables over a relatively short time span, thereby minimizing the accumulation of error from this source. If the total energy of the system is theoretically conserved, its evaluation for values of the variables at the beginning and end of a calculation is a measure of the errors that have accumulated.
The motion of the planets of the solar system over time scales approaching its 4.6-billion-year age is a classic n-body problem, where n = 9 with the Sun included. The question of whether or not the solar system is ultimately stable—whether the current configuration of the planets will be maintained indefinitely under their mutual perturbations, or whether one or another planet will eventually be lost from the system or otherwise have its orbit drastically altered—is a long-standing one that might someday be answered through numerical calculation. The interplay of orbital resonances and chaotic orbits discussed above can be investigated numerically, and this interplay may be crucial in determining the stability of the solar system. Already it appears that the parameters defining the orbits of several planets vary over narrow chaotic zones, but whether or not this chaos can lead to instability if given enough time is still uncertain.
If accelerations are determined by summing all the pairwise interactions for the n particles, the computer time per time step increases as n2. Practical computations for the direct calculation of the interactions between all the particles are thereby limited to n < 10,000. Therefore, for larger values of n, schemes are used where a particle is assumed to move in the force field of the remaining particles approximated by that due to a continuum mass distribution, or a “tree structure” is used where the effects of nearby particles are considered individually while larger and larger groups of particles are considered collectively as their distances increase. These later schemes have the capability of calculating the evolution of a very large system of particles using a reasonable amount of computer time with reasonable approximation. Values of n near 100,000 have been used in calculations determining the evolution of galaxies of stars. Values of n in the billions have been used in calculations of galaxy formation in the early universe. Also, the consequences for distribution of stars when two galaxies closely approach one another or even collide has been determined. Even calculations of the n-body problem where n changes with time have been completed in the study of the accumulation of larger bodies from smaller bodies via collisions in the process of the formation of the planets.
In all n-body calculations, very close approaches of two particles can result in accelerations so large and so rapidly changing that large errors are introduced or the calculation completely diverges. Accuracy can sometimes be maintained in such a close approach, but only at the expense of requiring very short time steps, which drastically slows the calculation. When n is small, as in some solar system calculations where two-body orbits still dominate, close approaches are sometimes handled by a change to a set of variables, usually involving the eccentric anomaly u, that vary much less rapidly during the encounter. In this process, called regularization, the encounter is traversed in less computer time while preserving reasonable accuracy. This process is impractical when n is large, so accelerations are usually artificially bounded on close approaches to prevent instabilities in the numerical calculation and to prevent slowing the calculation. For example, if several sets of particles were trapped in stable, close binary orbits, the very short time steps required to follow this rapid motion would bring the calculation to a virtual standstill, and such binary motion is not important in the overall evolution of, say, a galaxy of stars.
Algebraic maps
In numerical calculations for conservative systems with modest values of n over long time spans, such as those seeking a determination of the stability of the solar system, the direct solution of the differential equations governing the motions requires excessive time on any computer and accumulates excessive round-off error in the process. Excessive time also is required to explore thoroughly a complete range of orbital parameters in numerical experiments in order to determine the extent of chaotic zones in various configurations (e.g., those in the asteroid belt near orbital mean motion commensurabilities with Jupiter). A solution to this problem is the use of an algebraic map, which maps the space of system variables onto itself in such a way that the values of all the variables at one instant of time are expressed by algebraic relations in terms of the values of the variables at a fixed time in the past. The values at the next time step are determined by applying the same map to the values just obtained, and so on. The map is constructed by assuming that the motions of all the bodies are unperturbed for a given short time but are periodically “kicked” by the perturbing forces for only an instant. The continuous perturbations are thus replaced by periodic impulses. The values of the variables are “mapped” from one time step to the next by the fact that the unperturbed part of the motion is available from the exact solution of the two-body problem, and it is easy to solve the equations with all the perturbations over the short time of the impulse. Although this approximation does not produce exactly the same values of all the variables at some time in the future as those produced by a numerical solution of the differential equations starting with the same initial conditions, the qualitative behaviour is indistinguishable over long time periods. As computers can perform the algebraic calculations as much as 1,000 times faster than they can solve the corresponding differential equations, the computational time savings are enormous and problems otherwise impossible to explore become tractable.
