coloration
coloration, in biology, the general appearance of an organism as determined by the quality and quantity of light that is reflected or emitted from its surfaces. Coloration depends upon several factors: the colour and distribution of the organism’s biochromes (pigments), particularly the relative location of differently coloured areas; the shape, posture, position, and movement of the organism; and the quality and quantity of light striking the organism. The perceived coloration depends also on the visual capabilities of the viewer. Coloration is a dynamic and complex characteristic and must be clearly distinguished from the concept of “colour,” which refers only to the spectral qualities of emitted or reflected light.
Many evolutionary functions have been suggested for the effects of coloration on optical signaling. An organism with conspicuous coloration draws attention to itself, with some sort of adaptive interaction the frequent result. Such “advertising” coloration may serve to repel or attract other animals. While conspicuous coloration emphasizes optical signals and thereby enhances communication, coloration may, conversely, suppress optical signals or create incorrect signals and thereby reduce communication. This “deceptive” coloration serves to lessen detrimental or maladaptive interactions with other organisms.
Coloration may also affect an organism in ways other than its interaction with other organisms. Such nonoptical functions of coloration include physiological roles that depend on the molecular properties (e.g., strength and type of chemical bonds) of the chemicals that create colour. For example, dark hair is mechanically stronger than light hair, and dark feathers resist abrasion better than light feathers. Coloration may also play a part in the organism’s energy budget, because biochromes create colour by the differential reflection and absorption of solar engery. Energy absorbed as a result of coloration may be used in biochemical reactions, such as photosynthesis, or it may contribute to the thermal equilibrium of the organism. Nonoptical functions of coloration also include visual functions in which coloration or its pattern affects an animal’s own vision. Surfaces near the eye may be darkly coloured, for instance, to reduce reflectance that interferes with vision.
Emitted light, the product of bioluminescence, forms a portion of the coloration of some organisms. Bioluminescence may reveal an organism to nearby animals, but it may also serve as a light source in nocturnal species or in deepwater marine animals such as the pinecone fishes (Monocentris). These fishes feed at night and have bright photophores, or bioluminescent organs, at the tips of their lower jaws; they appear to use these organs much like tiny searchlights as they feed on planktonic (minute floating) organisms.
Because many pigments are formed as the natural or only slightly modified by-products of metabolic processes, some coloration may be without adaptive function. Nonfunctional coloration can, for example, be an incidental effect of a pleiotropic gene (a gene that has multiple effects), or it can result from pharmacological reaction (as when the skin of a Caucasian person turns blue in cold water) or from pure chance. It seems unlikely, however, that any apparently fortuitous coloration could long escape the process of natural selection and thus remain totally without function.
Regardless of its adaptive advantages, a particular coloration or pattern of coloration cannot evolve unless it is within the species’ natural pool of genetic variability. Thus a species may lack a seemingly adaptive coloration because genetic variability has not included that coloration or pattern in its hereditary repertoire.
Because humans are highly visual animals, we are naturally interested in and attentive to biological coloration. Human attention to coloration ranges from the purely aesthetic to the rigidly pragmatic. Soft, pastel colorations aid in increasing work efficiency and contribute to tranquil moods; bright, strongly contrasting colours seem to contribute to excitement and enthusiasm. These phenomena may be extensions of the basic human response to the soft blue, green, and brown backgrounds of the environment as opposed to sharply contrasting warning colorations found on many dangerous organisms. It is possible that much of the aesthetic value humans attach to coloration is closely related to its broad biological functions.
Human interest in coloration has led to biological studies. The classical work by the Moravian abbot Gregor Mendel on inherited characteristics, based largely on plant coloration, formed the foundation for modern genetics. Coloration also aids in the identification of organisms. It is an easily perceived, described, and compared characteristic. Related species living in different habitats, however, frequently have strikingly different colorations. Since coloration is susceptible to alteration in various functional contexts, it usually lacks value as a conservative characteristic for determining systematic relationships between all but the most closely related species.
Related articles of interest include animal behaviour; mimicry.
Structural and biochemical bases for colour
Organisms produce colour physically, by submicroscopic structures that fractionate incident light into its component colours (schemochromes); or chemically, by natural pigments (biochromes) that reflect or transmit (or both) portions of the solar spectrum. Pigmentary colours, being of molecular origin, may be expressed independently of structural colour and are not altered by crushing, grinding, or compression. Structural colours are often reinforced by the presence of biochromes and are altered or destroyed by crushing, grinding, or compression.
Structural colours (schemochromes)
The physical principles of total reflection, spectral interference, scattering, and, to some extent, polychromatic diffraction, all familiar in reference to inanimate objects, are also encountered among tissues of living forms, most commonly in animals. In plants these physical principles are exemplified only by the total reflection of white light by some fungi and bacteria and by the petals of some flowers and barks, and by some spectral interference in certain sea plants.
Reflection
Total reflection of light—which imparts whiteness to flowers, birds’ feathers, mammalian hair, and the wings of certain butterflies—often results from the separation of finely divided materials by minute air spaces. Secretions or deposits in tissues may also contribute to the whiteness; for example, the fat and protein in mammalian milk and the calcium carbonate in the shells of mollusks, crustaceans, certain echinoderms, corals, and protozoans.