Comet impact hazard

Comets pose a natural hazard to Earth. That is because many of them are in orbits that cross Earth’s and may collide with it. Approximately 10 long-period comets on the order of 1 km (0.6 mile) in diameter (or larger) cross Earth’s orbit each year. Because Earth is a relatively small target and space is vast, the impact probability per comet is, on average, very low. A random long-period comet in an Earth-crossing orbit has an average impact probability of 2.2 10⁻⁹. That means that, on average, one long-period comet will strike Earth for every 454 million comets that cross its orbit. Given the estimated rate of 10 comets crossing Earth’s orbit per year, that results in a mean time between long-period comet impacts of 45 million years.

However, because the long-period comets move on highly eccentric and highly inclined orbits, their mean impact velocities are much higher than for other celestial bodies—i.e., asteroids. The average long-period comet will strike Earth with a velocity of 51.7 km (32.1 miles) per second. If the impact velocity is weighted by the probability of impact for a particular orbit, then the weighted mean impact velocity increases to 54.6 km (33.9 miles) per second. Those values are much higher than those for Earth-crossing asteroids, which are typically only about 15 km (9 miles) per second.

An interesting case is that of Earth-crossing long-period Comet Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1), which passed closest to the Sun in 1997. Hale-Bopp was an unusually large and active comet, easily seen with the naked eye in evening skies. With a perihelion distance of 0.914 AU, Hale-Bopp’s orbit crossed inside Earth’s orbit. Hale-Bopp was believed to have an unusually large nucleus, estimated to be 27–42 km (17–26 miles) in diameter. Taking a median value of 35 km (22 miles) and assuming a mean bulk density of 0.6 gram per cubic centimetre results in an estimated mass of 1.3 10¹⁹ grams.

The impact probability for Hale-Bopp on Earth is 2.54 10⁻⁹ per perihelion passage, fairly typical for a long-period comet. Because of the comet’s high orbital eccentricity, 0.9951, and inclination, 89.43°, the impact velocity would be 52.9 km (32.9 miles) per second. The resulting impact energy is equivalent to 4.4 billion megatons of TNT. That is about 44 times the estimated energy of the asteroid impact that killed the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. Such an energetic impact may completely sterilize Earth, resulting in the extinction of all life on the planet. Fortunately, Hale-Bopp passed through the plane of Earth’s orbit on the far side of the Sun from Earth, so there was never any possibility of an impact. The average time between impacts of cometary nuclei as large as Hale-Bopp also far exceeds the age of the solar system.

That illustrates an important point about the cometary impact hazard. Although asteroid impacts are far more frequent than comet impacts, some comets crossing Earth’s orbit are considerably larger than any of the known near-Earth asteroids. Thus, the largest and most-devastating impacts on Earth are likely to be comets. Other known Earth-crossing comets with large nuclei include Halley’s Comet, 16 by 8 km (10 by 5 miles) in diameter, and Comet 109P/Swift-Tuttle, about 23–30 km (14–19 km) in diameter.

The flux of long-period comets can also vary over time. If a star comes close enough to the Sun to pass through the Oort cloud, in particular at distances less than 10,000 AU, then the star can cause a “shower” of comets to enter the planetary system. The rate of long-period comets crossing Earth’s orbit could increase by a factor of 200, and the complete shower would last for about 2.5 million years. Fortunately, such close stellar passages are rare, about one every 300 million years.

For Jupiter-family comets, the mean time between comet impacts is 28 million years. For Halley-type comets, the mean time between comet impacts is 521 million years. Note that the impact frequency for both Jupiter-family and Halley-type comets may be higher if there are yet undiscovered members of each group.

Comets are among the most-interesting bodies in the solar system because they retain a cosmo-chemical record of the physical and chemical conditions at the time the planets formed. They have been kept in “cold storage” far from the Sun during most of the solar system’s history and thus are essentially unmodified from their primitive state 4.56 billion years ago. Comets pose a small but significant part of the impact hazard on Earth and may account for the largest impacts on Earth over the past three billion years.