Studying cosmic rays

The first cosmic ray studies were conducted atop mountains, where only secondary particles were detectable. Since then further studies have been carried out from far below Earth’s surface to outer space. Some secondary muons have such high energies that they are able to penetrate Earth to depths of more than 3.2 km (2 miles). To study primary cosmic rays directly, high-altitude balloons (typically reaching altitudes of 37 km [about 120,000 feet]) have been extensively used. Rockets can reach greater heights but carry smaller payloads and remain at those altitudes for only a few minutes. Cosmic ray observations also have been made from Earth-orbiting satellites and from long-range probes. Cosmic rays are observed with instruments such as scintillation counters and proportional counters.

From the early 1930s to the 1950s, cosmic rays played a critical role in the scientific study of the atomic nucleus and its components, for they were the only source of high-energy particles. Short-lived subatomic particles were discovered through cosmic ray collisions. The field of particle physics was in fact established as a result of such discoveries, beginning with those of the positron and the muon. Even with the advent of powerful (multi-GeV) particle accelerators in the 1950s, investigators in the field have continued to study cosmic rays, albeit on a more-limited scale, because they contain particles with energies far beyond those attainable under laboratory conditions. Astroparticle physics is a vibrant research field.