Trees are the most permanent features of a garden plan. The range of tree sizes, shapes, and colours is vast enough to suit almost any gardening scheme, from shrubby dwarf trees to giant shade trees, from slow to rapid growers, from all tones of green to bronzes, reds, yellows, and purples. A balance between evergreen trees, such as pines and spruces, and deciduous trees, such as oaks, maples, and beeches, can provide protection and visual interest throughout the year.

Herbaceous plants

Herbaceous plants, which die down annually and have no woody stem aboveground, are readily divided into three categories, as mentioned earlier: (1) Annuals, plants that complete their life cycle in one year, are usually grown from seed sown in the spring either in the place they are to flower or in separate containers, from which they are subsequently moved into their final position. Annuals flower in summer and die down in winter after setting seed. Many brilliantly coloured ornamental plants as well as many weeds belong in this category. Examples of annuals are petunia and lobelia. (2) Biennials are plants sown from seed one year, generally during the summer. They flower the second season and then die. Examples are wallflower and sweet william. (3) Herbaceous perennials are those that die down to the ground each year but whose roots remain alive and send up new top growth each year. They are an important group in horticulture, whether grown as individual plants or in the assembly of the herbaceous border. Because they flower each year, they help to create the structure of the garden’s appearance, so their placement must be considered carefully. Examples are delphinium and lupine.

Bulbous plants

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For horticultural purposes, bulbous plants are defined to include those plants that have true bulbs (such as the daffodil), those with corms (such as the crocus), and a few that have tubers or rhizomes (such as the dahlia or iris). A bulb is defined as a modified shoot with a disklike basal plate and above it a number of fleshy scales that take the place of leaves and contain foods such as starch, sugar, and some proteins. Each year a new stem arises from the centre. A corm consists of the swollen base of a stem, generally rounded or flattened at the top and covered with a membranous tunic in which reserve food materials are stored. A tuber or rhizome is not the base of the stem but rather a swollen part of an underground stem; it is often knobbly. All such plants have evolved in places where they can survive in a semidormant state over long unfavourable seasons, either cold mountain winters or long droughty summers.

Clays

Clays, in which the particles are very fine, are called in horticulture heavy soils, because it is difficult to turn them over with a spade. They can be very fertile but tend to be lacking in good drainage, holding their water closely adhered to the soil particles; therefore, they cannot be worked when wet, and under pressure they tend to compact tightly, driving out the air. During drought they tend to become hard and even to develop large cracks so that they cannot be worked satisfactorily. Clay soils can be lightened with as much humus as can be dug into them. Humus may be any decayed organic matter, such as farmyard manure, leaf mold, or compost made from kitchen scraps and grass clippings.

Sands and gravels

Sands and gravels are opposite in properties to clay. The soil particles are large, and the soils are called light because they are easy to work and turn in nearly all weather. Since their water-holding capacity is very low, however, they tend to dry out quickly. They are “hungry” soils requiring great quantities of manures, humus, and fertilizers to keep them prolific.

Peats and heaths

Peats and heaths are usually very acid and ill-drained. They result where conditions have prevented the complete breakdown of old vegetable matter into humus, generally because of poor aeration and surplus acid bog water. Much peat is derived from the decaying roots of sphagnum moss, useful for mulching in the garden. A heath soil is generally less fertile, consisting of a large mixture of sand with the peat and tending to be very low in mineral content and in water-retaining capacity.

The ideal garden soil is a medium loam consisting of a mixture of clay and sand, fairly rich in humus and easily worked, and not forming large clods when dry. The consistency of the soil is important, for a porous, properly tilled soil provides a medium through which roots can penetrate readily and rapidly. Another factor of importance in soils is the degree of acidity or alkalinity. Soil alkalinity is usually derived from free calcium carbonate or a similar alkaline salt. Soil reaction can be modified. It may be made more alkaline by adding one of the organic salts, of which calcium is best, in the form of lime. Acidity may be increased by adding hydrogen, in the form of sulfur compounds such as ammonia sulfate or superphosphate.