Process and techniques

Most recombinant DNA technology involves the insertion of foreign genes into the plasmids of common laboratory strains of bacteria. Plasmids are small rings of DNA; they are not part of the bacterium’s chromosome (the main repository of the organism’s genetic information). Nonetheless, they are capable of directing protein synthesis, and, like chromosomal DNA, they are reproduced and passed on to the bacterium’s progeny. Thus, by incorporating foreign DNA (for example, a mammalian gene) into a bacterium, researchers can obtain an almost limitless number of copies of the inserted gene. Furthermore, if the inserted gene is operative (i.e., if it directs protein synthesis), the modified bacterium will produce the protein specified by the foreign DNA.

A subsequent generation of genetic engineering techniques that emerged in the early 21st century centred on gene editing. Gene editing, based on a technology known as CRISPR-Cas9, allows researchers to customize a living organism’s genetic sequence by making very specific changes to its DNA. Gene editing has a wide array of applications, being used for the genetic modification of crop plants and livestock and of laboratory model organisms (e.g., mice).

The correction of genetic errors associated with disease in animals suggests that gene editing has potential applications in gene therapy for humans. Gene therapy is the introduction of a normal gene into an individual’s genome in order to repair a mutation that causes a genetic disease. When a normal gene is inserted into a mutant nucleus, it most likely will integrate into a chromosomal site different from the defective allele; although this may repair the mutation, a new mutation may result if the normal gene integrates into another functional gene. If the normal gene replaces the mutant allele, there is a chance that the transformed cells will proliferate and produce enough normal gene product for the entire body to be restored to the undiseased phenotype.

Applications

Genetic engineering has advanced the understanding of many theoretical and practical aspects of gene function and organization. Through recombinant DNA techniques, bacteria have been created that are capable of synthesizing human insulin, human growth hormone, alpha interferon, a hepatitis B vaccine, and other medically useful substances. Plants may be genetically adjusted to enable them to fix nitrogen, and genetic diseases can possibly be corrected by replacing dysfunctional genes with normally functioning genes.

Genes for toxins that kill insects have been introduced in several species of plants, including corn and cotton. Bacterial genes that confer resistance to herbicides also have been introduced into crop plants. Other attempts at the genetic engineering of plants have aimed at improving the nutritional value of the plant.

Controversy and ethical issues

In 1980 the “new” microorganisms created by recombinant DNA research were deemed patentable, and in 1986 the U.S. Department of Agriculture approved the sale of the first living genetically altered organism—a virus, used as a pseudorabies vaccine, from which a single gene had been cut. Since then several hundred patents have been awarded for genetically altered bacteria and plants. Patents on genetically engineered and genetically modified organisms, particularly crops and other foods, however, were a contentious issue, and they remained so into the first part of the 21st century.

Special concern has been focused on genetic engineering for fear that it might result in the introduction of unfavourable and possibly dangerous traits into microorganisms that were previously free of them—e.g., resistance to antibiotics, production of toxins, or a tendency to cause disease. Indeed, possibilities for misuse of genetic engineering were vast. In particular, there was significant concern about genetically modified organisms, especially modified crops, and their impacts on human and environmental health. For example, genetic manipulation may potentially alter the allergenic properties of crops. In addition, whether some genetically modified crops, such as golden rice, deliver on the promise of improved health benefits was also unclear. The release of genetically modified mosquitoes and other modified organisms into the environment also raised concerns.

In the 21st century, significant progress in the development of gene-editing tools brought new urgency to long-standing discussions about the ethical and social implications surrounding the genetic engineering of humans. The application of gene editing in humans raised significant ethical concerns, particularly regarding its potential use to alter traits such as intelligence and beauty. More practically, some researchers attempted to use gene editing to alter genes in human sperm, which would enable the edited genes to be passed on to subsequent generations, while others sought to alter genes that increase the risk of certain types of cancer, with the aim of reducing cancer risk in offspring. The impacts of gene editing on human genetics, however, were unknown, and regulations to guide its use were largely lacking.