Farther still from Earth, at about 10 R_e along the Earth–Sun line, is yet another current system that affects the surface field and profoundly changes the nature of Earth’s field in space. This system is called the magnetopause current, or Chapman-Ferraro current system for the English physicist Sydney Chapman and his student V.C.A. Ferraro, who first suggested its existence. It flows in a single sheet and forms a boundary between the magnetic fields of Earth and solar wind. When solar wind particles encounter Earth’s field, they are bent from their paths by the Lorentz force. As noted above, protons gyrate in a left-handed sense around a magnetic field and electrons in a right-handed sense. Since the particles are coming from the Sun and the direction of Earth’s field is upward parallel to its rotation axis, this gyration creates an electric current eastward in the equatorial plane as shown in the figure. The field of this current is such that it decreases Earth’s field outside the boundary and increases it inside. Once the current is fully developed, it occupies a thin sheet everywhere on the dayside of Earth, outside of which is canceled all the terrestrial field. Inside the sheet the field is twice that of the main field.

The magnetopause current system must close in some manner. More detailed consideration reveals that it closes on the magnetopause in much the same pattern as the dynamo currents in the ionosphere below. The above figure also presents a perspective view of the northern portion of the magnetopause current as seen from above the ecliptic plane. The current flows eastward across the dayside of Earth and then westward around a “neutral point” (so called because the total field is nearly zero at this location). The current is symmetrical about the equatorial plane and encloses a volume of space known as the magnetosphere. Were it not for other processes, Earth’s field would be completely contained inside the magnetopause. If the solar wind were absent, the field would expand indefinitely outward and produce a simple dipole field, as illustrated in the bar-magnet figure.

The magnetotail current

Radially outward near local midnight rather than at local noon, there is an entirely different current system. Beginning at approximately 10 R_e and extending well beyond 200 R_e is the tail current system. This current is from dawn to dusk in the same direction as the ring current on the nightside of Earth. In fact, it is produced by the same mechanism except that, in this region of space, curvature drift is the dominant cause of particle motion. Also, Earth’s field in this region is no longer even approximately dipolar, so the particle drift is nearly perpendicular to the Earth–Sun line rather than azimuthal around Earth’s centre. As in the case of the dayside magnetopause current, this current also closes on the magnetopause. In fact, above and below Earth it is indistinguishable from the Chapman-Ferraro current because it closes in the same direction and is produced by the same mechanism of charge deflection. The tail current differs from the magnetopause current because over part of its path it flows interior to Earth’s magnetic field. The region where this occurs is called the plasma sheet, as is shown in the figure summarizing the configuration of Earth’s outer magnetic field. For an observer on the nightside of Earth looking away from the Sun, the current would appear to flow in a pattern similar to the Greek letter “theta.” It flows westward (dawn to dusk) through the plasma sheet and then splits, closing above and below on the boundary of the magnetopause. Repetition of this current pattern continuously down the tail produces a current system that is essentially that of two long solenoids squashed together in a “theta” pattern, with opposite currents in the two solenoids.

Although the tail current is explained by the particle drifts discussed above, it is not obvious what process creates the tail-like magnetic field configuration required for these drifts. The Chapman-Ferraro current and the ring current are both produced in regions where Earth’s field is strong and dominated by the effects of the internal dynamo. Far from Earth the field is stretched out into two long bundles of magnetic field lines confined by and almost wholly produced by the tail current system described above. In simplest terms, the particles travel in a field produced by their own movement. Particle motion of this type is another consequence of the interaction of the solar wind with Earth’s main field.

In the single-particle description of the solar wind interaction with the dayside magnetic field, it was noted that solar wind particles are deflected by the field and produce a current. This same interaction may be described in a fluid picture by stating that a boundary exists at a point where the magnetic pressure of Earth’s field exactly equals the perpendicular pressure of the solar wind on the boundary. On the dayside this is caused primarily by the velocity of the solar wind and not its thermal pressure.

The second component of the solar wind interaction is tangential drag, which is a frictional force exerted by the solar wind parallel to the boundary. The effect of this force is to move Earth’s field lines tailward. Two mechanisms are thought to be primarily responsible for tangential drag at the magnetopause. The first is called the viscous interaction and the second, reconnection. The latter is more difficult to visualize and will be discussed below in the section Sources of variation in the steady magnetic field.

Viscous interaction involves the transfer of momentum from the solar wind to a closed field line of Earth’s magnetic field just inside the boundary. Because of the transfer, a field line inside the boundary moves in the same direction as the solar wind. (An example of how such a transfer might occur is shown by the process of scattering a solar wind particle inside the magnetopause.)

The viscous interaction is capable of moving closed field lines from the dayside of Earth far out on its nightside. Eventually the field lines become highly stretched into two oppositely directed bundles much like the tail of a comet except that Earth’s field is invisible. Tension in the field, combined with weakening of the tangential drag, allows the field line to return earthward. The field lines cannot return along the same path. Instead, they return through the interior of Earth’s field. The motion of these closed field lines in two closed loops is called magnetospheric convection. This mechanism, together with the more important one due to reconnection, produces the tail current system.

The superposition of Earth’s main field, ring current, magnetopause current, and tail current produces a configuration of magnetic field lines quite different from that of the dipole field shown in the bar-magnet figure. On the dayside the field lines are compressed inside a boundary located typically at 10 R_e. On the nightside the field is drawn out to distances probably exceeding 1,000 R_e. As will be discussed below, several processes interior to the magnetopause produce other boundaries besides the magnetopause. Several of these are evident from Earth’s surface as regions in the ionosphere within which specific types of auroras occur.