The molecules of organic chemical compounds are built up from a framework or backbone of carbon atoms to which are attached hydrogen (H), oxygen, or other heteroatoms. Carbon atoms have the unique property of being able to link with one another to form chains of atoms. When the ends of the chains are joined together into a ring, cyclic compounds result; such substances often are referred to as carbocyclic or alicyclic compounds. Substitution of one or more of the ring carbon atoms in the molecules of a carbocyclic compound with a heteroatom gives a heterocyclic compound.
A typical carbocyclic compound is cyclopentane (C5H10), the molecular structure of which is indicated by the formula
in which the chemical symbols represent atoms of the elements and the lines represent bonds (see covalent bond) between the atoms. For convenience such formulas are often written in simplified polygonal form, such asfor cyclopentane, in which each corner of the polygon represents a carbon atom (it being understood that hydrogen atoms are joined to the carbon atoms as required).
When
one of the carbon atoms of cyclopentane is replaced with an atom of nitrogen, the compound pyrrolidine, a chemical relative of pyrrole, is produced. The structural formula of pyrrolidine is written:
Other heterocyclic compounds can be envisioned similarly as derivatives of cyclopentane by substitution with other heteroatoms or of other carbocyclic compounds by substitution with nitrogen or other heteroatoms.
The sim
plest organic compounds are the hydrocarbons, compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. Hydrocarbons are classified as saturated if all four possible bonds of every carbon atom are joined singly to another carbon atom or to a hydrogen atom. They are classified as unsaturated if they contain a double or triple bond between any two of the carbon atoms, and they are classed as aromatic if they contain at least one ring, all atoms of which are joined by alternating double and single bonds. Nonaromatic unsaturated compounds are highly reactive—that is, they readily undergo additions of atoms or groups of atoms to the carbon atoms of their double bonds, giving each carbon four substituents. Aromatic compounds, though having double bonds, are extremely stable and do not readily undergo the addition reactions characteristic of other unsaturated compounds. The stability and unreactivity of, for instance, a six-membered aromatic ring are associated with the presence of three pairs of electrons, called pi (π) electrons, associated with the three double bonds of the ring. Together these electrons, constituting the so-called aromatic sextet, form an unusually stable structure associated with the aromatic ring as a whole rather than with the individual pairs of atoms.
Heterocycles too may be classified as saturated, unsaturated, or aromatic. Thus, as shown in the following structural formulas, pyrrolidine is a saturated heterocyclic compound containing no double bond; 4,5-dihydrofuran is an unsaturated heterocyclic compound; and pyridine is a typical heterocyclic aromatic, or heteroaromatic, substance. In the two structural formulas given for pyridine, the first shows the double bonds, whereas the second represents the aromatic sextet with a circle.
This classification relates the chemistry of heterocycles directly with that of carbocyclic derivatives, which are usually better known. In general, synthetic methods and physical and chemical properties of the saturated and the partly unsaturated heterocyclic compounds closely resemble those for their acyclic (noncyclic, or open-chain) analogs. Thus, pyrrolidine may be considered as a cyclic secondary amine and has much in common with the corresponding acyclic amine, diethylamine, which is represented by the formula:
Similarly, 4,5-dihydrofuran mirrors many of the properties of the corresponding unsaturated ether, ethyl vinyl ether, which has the formula:
Nomenclature of heterocyclic compounds
Naming heterocyclic compounds is complicated because of the existence of many common names in addition to the internationally agreed-upon systematic nomenclature. (A brief account of systematic nomenclature is given here; for more information, see below Major classes of heterocyclic compounds.)
The types of heteroatoms present in a ring are indicated by prefixes; in particular, oxa-, thia-, and aza- denote oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen atoms, respectively. The numbers of heteroatoms of a particular kind are indicated by number prefixes joined to the heteroatom prefixes, as dioxa- and triaza-. The presence of different kinds of heteroatoms is indicated by combining the above prefixes, using the following order of preference: oxa- first, followed by thia- and then aza-.
In addition, partially saturated rings are indicated by the prefixes dihydro-, tetrahydro-, and so on, according to the number of “extra” hydrogen atoms bonded to the ring atoms. The positions of heteroatoms, extra hydrogen atoms, and substituents are indicated by Arabic numerals, for which the numbering starts at an oxygen atom, if one is present, or at a sulfur or nitrogen atom and continues in such a way that the heteroatoms are assigned the lowest possible numbers. Other things being equal, numbering starts at a nitrogen atom that carries a substituent rather than at a multiply bonded nitrogen. In compounds with maximum unsaturation, if the double bonds can be arranged in more than one way, their positions are defined by indicating the nitrogen or carbon atoms that are not multiply bonded and that consequently carry an extra hydrogen atom (or substituent), as follows: 1H-, 2H-, and so on.