The six classes of nutrients found in foods are carbohydrates, lipids (mostly fats and oils), proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins constitute the bulk of the diet, amounting together to about 500 grams (just over one pound) per day in actual weight. These macronutrients provide raw materials for tissue building and maintenance as well as fuel to run the myriad of physiological and metabolic activities that sustain life. In contrast are the micronutrients, which are not themselves energy sources but facilitate metabolic processes throughout the body: vitamins, of which humans need about 300 milligrams per day in the diet, and minerals, of which about 20 grams per day are needed. The last nutrient category is water, which provides the medium in which all the body’s metabolic processes occur.
A nutrient is considered “essential” if it must be taken in from outside the body—in most cases, from food. (See table.) These nutrients are discussed in this section. Although they are separated into categories for purposes of discussion, one should keep in mind that nutrients work in collaboration with each other in the body, not as isolated entities.
| recommended daily intake (Recommended Dietary Allowance or Adequate Intake) | ||
|---|---|---|
| women | men | |
| macronutrients | ||
| 1Based on a recommended intake of 0.8 g of protein per kg of body weight for a healthy 70-kg (154-pound) man and a healthy nonpregnant, nonlactating 57-kg (126-pound) woman (United States and Canada). | ||
| 2As retinol activity equivalents (RAE); 1 RAE = 1 μg all-trans-retinol = 12 μg dietary all-trans-beta-carotene. One IU of vitamin A activity = 0.3 μg all-trans-retinol = 3.6 μg all-trans-beta-carotene. | ||
| 31 μg cholecalciferol = 40 IU vitamin D. | ||
| 4As niacin equivalents (NE); 1 mg niacin = 60 mg tryptophan. | ||
| 5As dietary folate equivalents (DFE); 1 DFE = 1 μg food folate = 0.6 μg folic acid from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 μg folic acid as a supplement taken without food. | ||
| Source: National Academy of Sciences, Dietary Reference Intakes (1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, and 2002). | ||
| carbohydrates | 130 g | 130 g |
| fibre | 25 g | 38 g |
| linoleic acid (omega-6) | 12 g | 17 g |
| alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3) | 1.1 g | 1.6 g |
| protein1 | 46 g | 56 g |
| vitamins | ||
| vitamin A2 | 700 μg [2,333 IU] | 900 μg [3,000 IU] |
| vitamin C | 75 mg | 90 mg |
| vitamin D3 (as cholecalciferol) | 5–15 μg [200–600 IU] | 5–15 μg [200–600 IU] |
| vitamin E (as alpha-tocopherol) | 15 mg | 15 mg |
| vitamin K | 90 μg | 120 μg |
| thiamin | 1.1 mg | 1.2 mg |
| riboflavin | 1.1 mg | 1.3 mg |
| niacin4 | 14 mg | 16 mg |
| vitamin B6 | 1.3 mg | 1.3 mg |
| folic acid5 | 400 μg | 400 μg |
| vitamin B12 | 2.4 μg | 2.4 μg |
| pantothenic acid | 5 mg | 5 mg |
| biotin | 30 μg | 30 μg |
| minerals | ||
| calcium | 1,000–1,200 mg | 1,000–1,200 mg |
| chromium | 25 μg | 35 μg |
| copper | 900 μg | 900 μg |
| fluoride | 3 mg | 4 mg |
| iodine | 150 μg | 150 μg |
| iron | 8–18 mg | 8 mg |
| magnesium | 310–320 mg | 400–420 mg |
| manganese | 1.8 mg | 2.3 mg |
| molybdenum | 45 μg | 45 μg |
| phosphorus | 700 mg | 700 mg |
| selenium | 55 μg | 55 μg |
| zinc | 8 mg | 11 mg |
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates, which are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are the major supplier of energy to the body, providing 4 kilocalories per gram. In most carbohydrates, the elements hydrogen and oxygen are present in the same 2:1 ratio as in water, thus “carbo” (for carbon) and “hydrate” (for water).
Glucose
The simple carbohydrate glucose is the principal fuel used by the brain and nervous system and by red blood cells. Muscle and other body cells can also use glucose for energy, although fat is often used for this purpose. Because a steady supply of glucose is so critical to cells, blood glucose is maintained within a relatively narrow range through the action of various hormones, mainly insulin, which directs the flow of glucose into cells, and glucagon and epinephrine, which retrieve glucose from storage. The body stores a small amount of glucose as glycogen, a complex branched form of carbohydrate, in liver and muscle tissue, and this can be broken down to glucose and used as an energy source during short periods (a few hours) of fasting or during times of intense physical activity or stress. If blood glucose falls below normal (hypoglycemia), weakness and dizziness may result. Elevated blood glucose (hyperglycemia), as can occur in diabetes, is also dangerous and cannot be left untreated.
Glucose can be made in the body from most types of carbohydrate and from protein, although protein is usually an expensive source of energy. Some minimal amount of carbohydrate is required in the diet—at least 50 to 100 grams a day. This not only spares protein but also ensures that fats are completely metabolized and prevents a condition known as ketosis, the accumulation of products of fat breakdown, called ketones, in the body. Although there are great variations in the quantity and type of carbohydrates eaten throughout the world, most diets contain more than enough.
Other sugars and starch
The simplest carbohydrates are sugars, which give many foods their sweet taste but at the same time provide food for bacteria in the mouth, thus contributing to dental decay. Sugars in the diet are monosaccharides, which contain one sugar or saccharide unit, and disaccharides, which contain two saccharide units linked together. Monosaccharides of nutritional importance are glucose, fructose, and galactose; disaccharides include sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose. A slightly more complex type of carbohydrate is the oligosaccharide (e.g., raffinose and stachyose), which contains three to 10 saccharide units; these compounds, which are found in beans and other legumes and cannot be digested well by humans, account for the gas-producing effects of these foods. Larger and more complex storage forms of carbohydrate are the polysaccharides, which consist of long chains of glucose units. Starch, the most important polysaccharide in the human diet—found in grains, legumes, potatoes, and other vegetables—is made up of mainly straight glucose chains (amylose) or mainly branching chains (amylopectin). Finally, nondigestible polysaccharides known as dietary fibre are found in plant foods such as grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, seeds, and nuts.
In order to be utilized by the body, all complex carbohydrates must be broken down into simple sugars, which, in turn, must be broken down into monosaccharides—a feat, accomplished by enzymes, that starts in the mouth and ends in the small intestine, where most absorption takes place. Each dissacharide is split into single units by a specific enzyme; for example, the enzyme lactase breaks down lactose into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and galactose. In much of the world’s population, lactase activity declines during childhood and adolescence, which leads to an inability to digest lactose adequately. This inherited trait, called lactose intolerance, results in gastrointestinal discomfort and diarrhea if too much lactose is consumed. Those who have retained the ability to digest dairy products efficiently in adulthood are primarily of northern European ancestry.
Dietary fibre
Dietary fibre, the structural parts of plants, cannot be digested by the human intestine because the necessary enzymes are lacking. Even though these nondigestible compounds pass through the gut unchanged (except for a small percentage that is fermented by bacteria in the large intestine), they nevertheless contribute to good health. Insoluble fibre does not dissolve in water and provides bulk, or roughage, that helps with bowel function (regularity) and accelerates the exit from the body of potentially carcinogenic or otherwise harmful substances in food. Types of insoluble fibre are cellulose, most hemicelluloses, and lignin (a phenolic polymer, not a carbohydrate). Major food sources of insoluble fibre are whole grain breads and cereals, wheat bran, and vegetables. Soluble fibre, which dissolves or swells in water, slows down the transit time of food through the gut (an undesirable effect) but also helps lower blood cholesterol levels (a desirable effect). Types of soluble fibre are gums, pectins, some hemicelluloses, and mucilages; fruits (especially citrus fruits and apples), oats, barley, and legumes are major food sources. Both soluble and insoluble fibre help delay glucose absorption, thus ensuring a slower and more even supply of blood glucose. Dietary fibre is thought to provide important protection against some gastrointestinal diseases and to reduce the risk of other chronic diseases as well. (See nutritional disease.)