Quantitative tests

Important quantitative tests of renal function include those of glomerular filtration rate, renal clearance, and renal blood flow. Tests are also made to estimate maximal tubular activity, tubular mass, and tubular function. Radiological and other imaging methods are useful noninvasive diagnostic techniques, and renal biopsy is valuable in detecting pathological changes that affect the kidneys. In both clinical and experimental studies one of the most fundamental measures of renal function is that of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). The GFR is calculated by measuring the specific clearance from the body of a substance believed to be excreted solely by glomerular filtration. The renal clearance of any substance is the volume of plasma containing that amount of the substance that is removed by the kidney in unit time (e.g., in one minute). Clearance, or the volume of plasma cleared, is an artificial concept since no portion of the plasma is ever really cleared in this fashion.

It was soon realized, however, that if a substance could be found that was freely filtered by the glomeruli and was neither reabsorbed, metabolized, nor secreted by the renal tubules, its clearance would equal the GFR. This is so in these circumstances because the amount of such a substance excreted in the urine in one minute would equal the amount that has been filtered at the glomeruli in the same time. If the concentration of the substance in the plasma (which is the same as that in the glomerular filtrate) is known, the clearance volume must represent the volume of glomerular filtrate.

The first substance identified to be excreted in this way was the polysaccharide inulin (molecular weight about 5,000), which is extracted from the roots of dahlias. Although inulin is not naturally found in human plasma it is nontoxic and can be injected or infused into the bloodstream. Its concentration also can be measured readily and accurately. In the adult male the GFR is 125 millilitres per minute per 1.73 square metres of body surface. In the adult female, the values are about 85 percent of those for the same standard area of body surface. Inulin clearance is now accepted as the standard for estimation of the GFR.

Clearance value is not the same as excretion rate. The clearance of inulin and some other compounds is not altered by raising its plasma concentration, because the amount of urine completely cleared of the agent remains the same. But the excretion rate equals total quantity excreted per millilitre of filtrate per minute, and this value is directly proportional to its plasma concentration.

Substances, such as urea, whose clearance is less than the GFR must be reabsorbed by the renal tubules, while substances whose clearance is greater than the GFR must be secreted by the renal tubules. Since the discovery of inulin, researchers have identified a small number of other substances that are excreted by the kidney in a similar fashion and that have similar clearance values. These include vitamin B₁₂, circulating free in plasma and unbound to protein, and sodium ferrocyanide.

The clearance of creatinine was used as a measure of renal function before inulin was discovered; because this substance is found naturally in plasma, creatinine clearance is still widely used as an approximate measure of the GFR. Creatinine is produced in the body at virtually a constant rate, and its concentration in the blood changes little; accordingly, creatinine clearance is usually measured over a period of 24 hours. There is evidence that in humans creatinine is secreted into the urine by renal tubules as well; however, the amount is small and constant and has little effect on the measure of the GFR.

The concept of clearance is also useful in the measurement of renal blood flow. Para-aminohippuric acid (PAH), when introduced into the bloodstream and kept at relatively low plasma concentrations, is rapidly excreted into the urine by both glomerular filtration and tubular secretion. Sampling of blood from the renal vein reveals that 90 percent of PAH is removed by a single circulation of blood through the kidneys. This high degree of PAH extraction by the kidney at a single circulation implies that the clearance of PAH is approximately the same as renal plasma flow (RPF). The 10 percent of PAH that remains in renal venous blood is conveyed in blood that perfuses either nonsecretory tissue, such as fibrous tissue or fat, or parts of the tubule that do not themselves secrete PAH. In practice this small remaining percentage is usually ignored, and the clearance of PAH is referred to as the effective renal plasma flow. In humans PAH clearance is about 600 millilitres per minute, and thus true renal plasma flow is about 700 millilitres per minute.

Estimation of the GFR and RPF allows the proportion of available plasma perfusing the kidney that is filtered by the glomerulus to be calculated. This is called the filtration fraction and on average in healthy individuals is 125/600, or about 20 percent. Thus about one-fifth of plasma entering the glomeruli leaves as filtrate, the remaining four-fifths continuing into the efferent glomerular arterioles. This fraction changes in a number of clinical disorders, notably hypertension.

Reference has already been made to the fact that the renal tubules possess a limited capacity to perform certain of their functions. This is the case, for example, in their ability to concentrate and dilute urine and to achieve a gradient of hydrogen ions between urine and blood. Concentrating power can be tested by depriving the individual of water for up to 24 hours, or, more simply, by introducing a synthetic analogue of ADH into each nostril. The water deprivation test assesses the individual’s capacity to produce ADH and the sensitivity of the renal concentrating mechanism to circulating ADH. The use of an analogue of ADH assesses only the sensitivity of the renal tubules to the hormone.

The limits of renal ability to excrete acid and establish a gradient of the concentration of hydrogen ions between plasma and urine has been mentioned above. The power of acidification of urine is best estimated by measuring the pH of urine after the administration of ammonium chloride in divided doses over two or three days. Other specific functions that are tested include the individual’s ability to conserve sodium, potassium, and magnesium. In general, these tests are carried out by administering diets that are deficient in these electrolytes and then estimating the minimum rate of excretion after several days.

Radiological and other imaging investigations

Imaging techniques are used to determine the anatomical site, configuration, and level of functioning of the kidneys, pelvis, and ureters. A plain X-ray nearly always precedes any other more elaborate investigation, so that the size, outline, and position of the two kidneys, as well as information about the presence or absence of calcium-containing renal stones or zones of calcification can be ascertained. Excretion urography is one of the simplest methods of defining these aspects more precisely, though this radiological method is giving way to noninvasive imaging methods such as ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Excretion urography can be used to provide information on both the structure and the function of the renal system. In this test the kidneys are observed in X-rays after intravenous injection of a radiopaque compound that is excreted largely by glomerular filtration within one hour of the injection. A series of X-ray images (nephrograms) then indicates when the contrast substance first appears and reveals the increasing radiographic density of the renal tissue. The X-rays also indicate the position, size, and presence of scarring or tumours in the organs and provide an approximate comparison of function in the two kidneys. Finally the dye collects in the bladder, revealing any rupture or tumour in this organ.

Obstruction to the flow of urine also may be revealed by distension of the calyceal system above the site of obstruction. This is more clearly detected by urography, in which contrast medium is injected through a fine catheter introduced either directly into the pelvis of the kidney or into the ureteral orifice visualized during cystoscopy. A micturating cystogram (voiding cystourethrogram [VCUG]) involves the injection of contrast substance into the bladder and is of importance in the investigation of urinary tract infection in childhood. It may show the reflux of urine from the bladder upward into the ureters or kidneys on micturition. Because of the risk of radiation to the gonads this test should be conducted only on certain patients.

A radioactive renogram involves the injection of radioactive compounds that are concentrated and excreted by the kidney. The radiation can be detected by placing gamma scintillation counters externally over the kidneys at the back; the counts, transcribed on moving graph paper, yield characteristic time curves for normal and disordered function.

A picture of renal circulation can be obtained by introducing a radiopaque substance into the renal arteries via a catheter tube placed through a more peripheral artery in the groin area. The contrast material yields a renal angiogram, showing the renal vascular tree. The technique is especially valuable in demonstrating the presence of localized narrowing or obstructions in the circulation or of localized dilatations (aneurysms). Tumours, which tend to be well vascularized, are also distinguishable from cysts, which are not well supplied with blood. Balloon-tipped catheters can be used to stop active bleeding or to introduce a supportive stent, which is permanently placed inside an artery to stabilize a weakened vessel or to keep a narrowed vessel open.

Ultrasound and MRI have the advantage of being noninvasive and thus pose little risk to the patient. They are useful in detecting tumours of the kidney or adjacent structures and in distinguishing tumours from cysts. Special contrast agents (e.g., gadolinium) may be infused before an MRI examination to evaluate metabolic characteristics of tissues and to facilitate the examination of blood flow to a tumour. This may help to differentiate between benign and cancerous tumours. Ultrasound techniques are comparatively simple and have replaced other methods in detecting the presence of polycystic kidneys, as well as in providing initial screening evaluation of the kidney.

Renal biopsy

The visual, usually microscopic, examination of a specimen of kidney tissue removed from a living patient (renal biopsy) is the only investigative method that yields exact histological data on renal structure. The material for examination is usually obtained by inserting a special needle through the skin of the back into the kidney substance and withdrawing a fragment of tissue. A general anesthetic is not usually required, the procedure occupying only a few minutes. Renal biopsy has been valuable in clarifying several renal disorders, notably those affecting the glomeruli, and in revealing their prognosis and natural course. The major, potentially serious complication of biopsy is excessive bleeding, but this is rare. The procedure is not justified, however, if the patient possesses only one kidney or suffers from a bleeding disorder or from severe, uncontrolled high blood pressure.