The most important industrial method for the production of hydrogen is the catalytic steam–hydrocarbon process, in which gaseous or vaporized hydrocarbons are treated with steam at high pressure over a nickel catalyst at 650°–950° C to produce carbon oxides and hydrogen: CnH2n+2 + nH2O → nCO + (2n + 1)H2; CnH2n+2 + 2nH2O→ nCO2 + (3n + 1)H2. The primary reaction products are processed further in various ways, depending on the desired application of the hydrogen. Another important process for hydrogen production is the noncatalytic partial oxidation of hydrocarbons under elevated pressures: CnH2n+2 + (n/2)O2→ nCO + (n + 1)H2. This process requires a feed system for delivering precise rates of fuel and oxygen, burners of special design to give rapid mixing of the reactants, a refractory-lined reactor, and a cooling system to recover heat from the effluent gases. The latter process is exothermic (heat producing), in contrast to the endothermic (heat absorbing) steam–hydrocarbon process.
In a third process, called the pressure catalytic partial oxidation method, the two preceding processes are combined to maintain the required reaction temperature without external heating of the catalyst bed. Superheated steam and hydrocarbons are mixed, preheated, and blended with heated oxygen in a diffuser at the top of the catalytic reactor. The oxygen reacts with the hydrocarbons in a space above the catalyst. The reactants then pass through a bed of nickel catalyst in which the steam–hydrocarbon reactions proceed almost to equilibrium.
Before 1940 most of the world production of hydrogen was made by processes based on coal or coke, the principal one being a water–gas reaction between steam and red-hot coke: H2O + C → CO + H2. By 1970, however, relatively little hydrogen was being produced by such processes. For many years relatively small amounts of hydrogen had been produced by the electrolysis of aqueous solutions of salt or sodium hydroxide, the electrode reaction being H2O + e− → 1/2H2 + OH−. The reaction between sulfuric or hydrochloric acid and an active metal like zinc is utilized to liberate hydrogen in the laboratory, but such hydrogen usually contains trace quantities of volatile hydrides, such as arsine (AsH3) and phosphine (PH3), produced by impurities in the metal. These volatile impurities may be removed by bubbling the mixture of gases through a solution of a strong oxidizing agent, such as potassium permanganate.
A commercial method was developed for separating hydrogen from carbon monoxide synthesis gas by diffusion. The gas flows under pressure through bundles of tiny hollow polyester fibres through whose walls the hydrogen passes.
The largest single use of hydrogen in the world is in ammonia manufacture, which consumes about two-thirds of the world’s hydrogen production. Ammonia is manufactured by the so-called Haber-Bosch process, in which hydrogen and nitrogen react in the presence of a catalyst at pressures around 1,000 atmospheres and temperatures around 500° C: N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3. Large amounts of hydrogen are used in the preparation of methanol by the reaction CO + 2H2 → CH3OH. This process is carried out in the presence of certain mixed catalysts containing zinc oxide and chromium oxide at temperatures between 300° and 375° C and at pressures between 275 and 350 atmospheres.
Another major application of hydrogen is in the catalytic hydrogenation of organic compounds. Unsaturated vegetable and animal oils and fats are hydrogenated to make margarine and vegetable shortening. Hydrogen is used to reduce aldehydes, fatty acids, and esters to the corresponding alcohols. Aromatic compounds can be reduced to the corresponding saturated compounds, as in the conversion of benzene to cyclohexane and of phenol to cyclohexanol. Nitro compounds can be reduced easily to amines.
Hydrogen has been used as a primary rocket fuel for combustion with oxygen or fluorine and is favoured as a propellant for nuclear-powered rockets and space vehicles. Another increasing use of hydrogen is in the direct reduction of iron ores to metallic iron and in the reduction of the oxides of tungsten and molybdenum to the metals. A hydrogen (reducing) atmosphere is employed in the pouring of special castings, in the manufacture of magnesium, in the annealing of metals, and for the cooling of large electric motors. Hydrogen was once used for inflating lighter-than-air vessels, such as dirigibles and balloons, but now helium is generally used because it is nonflammable. The barrage balloons used in England during World War II, however, were filled with hydrogen. Liquid hydrogen is used in the laboratory to produce low temperatures.
Analysis
When atoms are excited, as in an electric discharge, they radiate light at discrete wavelengths that appear as lines in the spectrum. Inasmuch as the wavelengths of atomic spectral lines are characteristic of the element, the atomic spectrum may be used for identifying the element. The simplest of all such spectra is that of hydrogen. Johann Jakob Balmer, a Swiss mathematician and secondary school teacher, in 1885 discovered an equation for representing the wavelengths of hydrogen spectral lines, of which nine had been observed in the laboratory and of which five more were photographed in the spectrum of the star Sirius. The wavelengths, lambda (λ), in angstroms, were represented by the formula: λ = 3645.6 [m2/(m2 − 4)], m taking the successive values 3, 4, 5, etc. It was not until 1913 that a theoretical basis for this empirical relation was given by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr in his theory of atomic radiation.
The spinning motion of the proton gives it magnetic properties and causes it to precess in an applied magnetic field, much as a spinning top precesses in a gravitational field. The frequency at which a particular proton precesses is determined by its local electrical environment and by the strength of the applied magnetic field. When hydrogen compounds are irradiated with electromagnetic waves of a particular frequency, the phenomenon of resonance absorption occurs at magnetic field strengths that are different for each structurally (magnetically) distinguishable proton in the compound. Thus, proton magnetic resonance makes it possible to distinguish the structural types of hydrogen atoms present; furthermore, the absorption peak intensities are proportional to the number of hydrogen atoms of each kind. The absorption peaks are often split, however, because of the magnetic interaction of the proton magnetic moments among themselves. Proton-magnetic-resonance measurements provide data for the investigation of chemical structure.
One method for determining the total hydrogen content of a substance is to oxidize the substance completely in a stream of pure oxygen, which reacts with the hydrogen to produce water vapour. The resulting vapours are passed through a powerful dehydrating agent, such as magnesium perchlorate, which absorbs the water. From the increase in weight of the absorption tube containing the desiccant, the amount of hydrogen oxidized can be calculated. Gaseous hydrogen or hydrogen compounds may be oxidized by passing them over hot copper oxide, and the resulting water can then be collected and weighed and the amount of hydrogen calculated; to measure the hydrogen gas itself, the water vapour from the oxidation may be reduced to hydrogen gas by passing it over hot uranium metal—the hydrogen then being measured in a simple device called a gas buret.
Strongly acidic hydrogen atoms (as in compounds such as HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, etc.) can be determined in solution by adding measured amounts of a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide, NaOH, until the acid is neutralized, using an indicator to determine the end point. The net reaction is H+ + OH− → H2O. Weakly acidic hydrogen atoms (such as that attached to the oxygen in ethanol, C2H5OH, and those attached to the nitrogen in acetamide, CH3CONH2) can be converted to methane (measured in a gas buret) by reaction with the methyl Grignard reagent, CH3MgI. Hydridic hydrogen atoms (as in NaBH4, LiH, etc.) can be converted to molecular hydrogen (measured in a gas buret) by reaction with an aqueous acid.
William Lee Jolly The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica