The major mineralogical components of igneous rocks can be divided into two groups: felsic (from feldspar and silica) and mafic (from magnesium and ferrous iron). The felsic minerals include quartz, tridymite, cristobalite, feldspars (plagioclase and alkali feldspar), feldspathoids (nepheline and leucite), muscovite, and corundum. Because felsic minerals lack iron and magnesium, they are generally light in colour and consequently are referred to as such or as leucocratic. The mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and biotites, all of which are dark in colour. Mafic minerals are said to be melanocratic. These terms can be applied to the rocks, depending on the relative proportion of each type of mineral present. In this regard, the term colour index, which refers to the total percentage of the rock occupied by mafic minerals, is useful. Felsic rocks have a colour index of less than 50, while mafic rocks have a colour index above 50. Those rocks that have a colour index above 90 are referred to as ultramafic. These terms are to be used only for the mineralogical content of igneous rocks because they do not necessarily correlate directly with chemical terms. For example, it is common to find a felsic rock composed almost entirely of the mineral plagioclase, but in chemical terms, such a rock is a subsilicic mafic rock. Another example is an igneous rock consisting solely of pyroxene. Mineralogically, it would be termed ultramafic, but chemically, it is a mafic igneous rock with a silica content of about 50 percent.
The influence of supersaturation and undersaturation on the mineralogy of a rock was noted above. During the crystallization of magmas, supersaturated minerals will not be formed along with undersaturated minerals. Supersaturated minerals include quartz and its polymorphs and a low-calcium orthorhombic pyroxene. These cannot coexist with any of the feldspathoids (e.g., leucite and nepheline) or magnesium-rich olivine. In volcanic rocks that have been quenched (cooled rapidly) such that only a small part of the magma has been crystallized, it is possible to find a forsterite (magnesium-rich olivine) crystal surrounded by a glass that is saturated or supersaturated. In this case, the outer rim of the olivine may be corroded or replaced by a magnesium-rich pyroxene (called a reaction rim). The olivine was the first to be crystallized, but it was in the process of reacting with the saturated magma to form the saturated mineral when an eruption halted the reaction. Had the magma been allowed to crystallize fully, all the forsterite would have been transformed into the magnesium-rich pyroxene and quartz may have been crystallized.
Accessory minerals present in igneous rocks in minor amounts include monazite, allanite, apatite, garnets, ilmenite, magnetite, titanite, spinel, and zircon. Glass may be a major phase in some volcanic rock but, when present, is usually found in minor amounts. Igneous rocks that were exposed to weathering and circulating groundwater have undergone some degree of alteration. Common alteration products are talc or serpentine formed at the expense of olivine, chlorites replacing pyroxene and amphiboles, iron oxides replacing any mafic mineral, clay minerals and epidote formed from the feldspars, and calcite that may be formed at the expense of any calcium-bearing mineral by interaction with a carbon dioxide (CO2)-bearing solution. Glass is commonly altered to clay minerals and zeolite. In some cases, however, glass has undergone a devitrification process (in which it is transformed into a crystalline material) initiated by reaction of the glass with water or by subsequent reheating. Common products of devitrification include quartz and its polymorphs, alkali feldspar, plagioclase, pyroxene, zeolite, clays, and chlorite.
Albert M. KudoTextural features
The texture of an igneous rock normally is defined by the size and form of its constituent mineral grains and by the spatial relationships of individual grains with one another and with any glass that may be present. Texture can be described independently of the entire rock mass, and its geometric characteristics provide valuable insights into the conditions under which the rock was formed.
Crystallinity
Among the most fundamental properties of igneous rocks are crystallinity and granularity, two terms that closely reflect differences in magma composition and the differences between volcanic and various plutonic environments of formation. Crystallinity generally is described in terms of the four categories shown in the Table.
| crystallinity | rock term |
|---|---|
| entirely crystalline | holocrystalline |
| crystalline material and subordinate glass | hemicrystalline or hypocrystalline |
| glass and subordinate crystalline material | hemihyaline or hypohyaline |
| entirely glassy | holohyaline or hyaline |
Those holocrystalline rocks in which mineral grains can be recognized with the unaided eye are called phanerites, and their texture is called phaneritic. Those with mineral grains so small that their outlines cannot be resolved without the aid of a hand lens or microscope are termed aphanites, and their texture is termed aphanitic. Aphanitic rocks are further described as either microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline, according to whether or not their individual constituents can be resolved under the microscope. The subaphanitic, or hyaline, rocks are referred to as glassy, or vitric, in terms of granularity.
Aphanitic and glassy textures represent relatively rapid cooling of magma and, hence, are found mainly among the volcanic rocks. Slower cooling, either beneath Earth’s surface or within very thick masses of lava, promotes the formation of crystals and, under favourable circumstances of magma composition and other factors, their growth to relatively large sizes. The resulting phaneritic rocks are so widespread and so varied that it is convenient to specify their grain size as shown in the Table.
| terms in common use | general grain size | |
|---|---|---|
| igneous rocks in general | pegmatites | |
| fine-grained | <1 mm | <1 inch |
| medium-grained | 1–5 mm | 1–4 inches |
| coarse-grained | 5 mm–2 cm | 4–12 inches |
| very coarse-grained | >2 cm | >12 inches |
Granularity
Grain size
The general grain size ordinarily is taken as the average diameter of dominant grains in the rock; for the pegmatites, which are special rocks with extremely large crystals, it can refer to the maximum exposed dimensions of dominant grains. Most aphanitic rocks are characterized by mineral grains less than 0.3 millimetre (0.01 inch) in diameter, and those in which the average grain size is less than 0.1 millimetre (0.004 inch) are commonly described as dense.
Fabric
A major part of rock texture is fabric or pattern, which is a function of the form and outline of its constituent grains, their relative sizes, and their mutual relationships in space. Many specific terms have been employed to shorten the description of rock fabrics, and even the sampling offered here may seem alarmingly extensive. It should be noted, however, that fabric provides some of the most useful clues to the nature and sequence of magmatic crystallization.
The degree to which mineral grains show external crystal faces can be described as euhedral or panidiomorphic (fully crystal-faced), subhedral or hypidiomorphic (partly faced), or anhedral or allotriomorphic (no external crystal faces). Quite apart from the presence or absence of crystal faces, the shape, or habit, of individual mineral grains is described by such terms as equant, tabular, platy, elongate, fibrous, rodlike, lathlike, needlelike, and irregular. A more general contrast can be drawn between grains of equal (equant) and inequal dimensions. Even-grained, or equigranular, rocks are characterized by essential minerals that all exhibit the same order of grain size, but this implied equality need not be taken too literally. For such rocks the combination terms panidiomorphic-granular, hypidiomorphic-granular, and allotriomorphic-granular are applied according to the occurrence of euhedral, subhedral, and anhedral mineral grains within them. Many fine-grained allotriomorphic-granular rocks are more simply termed sugary, saccharoidal, or aplitic.
Rocks that are unevenly grained, or inequigranular, are generally characterized either by a seriate fabric, in which the variation in grain size is gradual and essentially continuous, or by a porphyritic fabric, involving more than one distinct range of grain sizes. Both of these kinds of texture are common. The relatively large crystals in a porphyritic rock ordinarily occur as separate entities, known as phenocrysts, set in a groundmass or matrix of much finer-grained crystalline material or glass. Quite commonly in many volcanic rocks, phenocrysts are aggregated. When this is observed, the term glomeroporphyritic is used to describe the texture, and the aggregate is referred to as a glomerocryst. In some cases, such glomerocrysts are monomineralic, but more commonly they are composed of two or more minerals. Based on chemical composition, texture, and other criteria such as isotopic analysis, it has been demonstrated that some phenocrysts and glomerocrysts were not crystallized from the host magma but rather were accidentally torn from the country rock by the magma as it rose to the surface. When this has occurred, these phenocrysts are referred to as xenocrysts, while the aggregates can be termed xenoliths. The size of phenocrysts is essentially independent of their abundance relative to the groundmass, and they range in external form from euhedral to anhedral. Most of them are best described as subhedral. Because the groundmass constituents span almost the full ranges of crystallinity and granularity, porphyritic fabric is abundantly represented among the phaneritic, aphanitic, and glassy rocks.
The sharp break in grain size between phenocrysts and groundmass reflects a corresponding change in the conditions that affected the crystallizing magma. Thus, the phenocrysts of many rocks probably grew slowly at depth, following which the nourishing magma rose to Earth’s surface as lava, cooled much more rapidly, and congealed to form a finer-grained or glassy groundmass. A porphyritic volcanic rock with a glassy groundmass is described as having a vitrophyric texture and the rock can be called a vitrophyre. Other porphyritic rocks may well reflect less drastic shifts in position and perhaps more subtle and complex changes in conditions of temperature, pressure, or crystallization rates. Many phenocrysts could have developed at the points where they now occur, and some may represent systems with two fluid phases, magma and coexisting gas. Appraisals of the composition of phenocrysts, their distribution, and their periods of growth relative to the accompanying groundmass constituents are important to an understanding of many igneous processes.
Important textural types
The articulation of mineral grains is described in terms of planar, smoothly curved, sinuous, sutured, interlocked, or irregular surfaces of mutual boundary. The distribution and orientation of mineral grains and of mineral grains and glass are other elements of fabric that can be useful in estimating the conditions and sequence of mineral formation in igneous rocks. The following are only a few of the most important examples:
Directive textures are produced by the preferred orientation of platy, tabular, or elongate mineral grains to yield grossly planar or linear arrangements; they are generally a result of magmatic flowage.
Graphic texture refers to the regular intergrowth of two minerals, one of them generally serving as a host and the other appearing on surfaces of the host as striplike or cuneiform units with grossly consistent orientation; the graphic intergrowth of quartz in alkali feldspar is a good example.
Ophitic texture is the association of lath-shaped euhedral crystals of plagioclase, grouped radially or in an irregular mesh, with surrounding or interstitial large anhedral crystals of pyroxene; it is characteristic of the common rock type known as diabase.
Poikilitic texture describes the occurrence of one mineral that is irregularly scattered as diversely oriented crystals within much larger host crystals of another mineral.
Reaction textures occur at the corroded margins of crystals, from the corrosive rimming of crystals of one mineral by finer-grained aggregates of another, or as a result of other features that indicate partial removal of crystalline material by reaction with magma or other fluid.
Pyroclastic texture results from the explosive fragmentation of volcanic material, including magma (commonly the light, frothy pumice variety and glass fragments called shards), country rock, and phenocrysts. Fragments less than 2 millimetres in size are called ash, and the rock formed of these is called tuff; fragments between 2 and 64 millimetres are lapilli and the rock is lapillistone; fragments greater than 64 millimetres are called bombs if rounded or blocks if angular, and the corresponding rock is termed agglomerate or pyroclastic breccia, respectively. Commonly, many of these pyroclastic rocks have been formed by dense hot clouds that hug the ground and behave much like a lava flow and hence are given the name pyroclastic flow. Most of these flows are composed of ash-size material; therefore, they are called ash flows and the rocks deposited by them are called ash-flow tuffs. A more general term for rocks deposited by these flows that does not specify size of fragments is ignimbrite. Ash-flow tuffs and other ignimbrites often have zones in which the fragments have been welded. These zones are termed welded tuffs and display a directive planar texture (called eutaxitic) that results from compaction and flattening of pumice fragments. Such pyroclastic flows were responsible for many of the deposits of the eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington State, U.S., on May 18, 1980. Most eruptions eject fragments that are borne by the wind and deposited subaerially (on the land surface). These deposits are said to be ash-fall tuffs and are recognized by their lamination (formation in thin layers that differ in grain size or composition). They commonly blanket the topography in contrast to the ash-flow deposits, which flow around topographic highs and which are completely unsorted.
Replacement textures occur where a mineral or mineral aggregate has the external crystal form of a preexisting different mineral (pseudomorphism) or where the juxtaposition of two minerals indicates that one was formed at the expense of the other.
Finally, crystal zoning describes faintly to very well-defined geometric arrangements of portions within individual crystals that differ significantly in composition (or some other property) from adjacent portions; most common are successive shells grouped concentrically about the centres of crystals, presumably reflecting shifts in conditions during crystal growth.
