Radiation effects

The use of X-rays and radioactive materials in science, medicine, and industry led to the recognition, documented by reports of radiation burns, that radiation exposure, although helpful for the diagnosis and treatment of disease, might also be harmful, and protective measures were taken to limit exposure. It took somewhat longer for the carcinogenic potential of ionizing radiation to be recognized. Today, however, the relationship between radiation dose and cancer risk is well characterized and well quantified, and there is clear understanding of the relationship between radiation exposure, which is the energy impinging on an organism, and radiation dose, which is the amount per unit mass absorbed by a selected bit of tissue. Thus, compared to a chemical dose to a given tissue, which requires understanding of the pathways by which a given intake of the chemical carcinogen results in absorption of the chemical by the tissue of interest, radiation dose is readily estimated.

An early study comparing cancer mortality among British radiologists who had registered with a radiological society before 1920 with that among radiologists who began their practice thereafter, when the first protection recommendations were released, provided key evidence that exposure was related to risk. Although cancer death rates among radiologists registered after 1920 was comparable to death rates for practitioners across all fields of medicine, radiologists still exhibited an excess cancer risk, presumably owing to long-term radiation exposure. Experimental studies of radiation effects such as cell inactivation, mutation, and cancer have taken advantage of the experimenters’ ability to regulate, with precision, radiation doses to target cells or tissues. Similarly, epidemiological investigations of exposed populations have benefited from the ability of scientists to reconstruct individual, and even organ-specific, radiation doses. Benefits include the estimation of dose-response relationships and of the modification of such relationships by individual properties such as sex, age, lifestyle, and genetic inheritance.

Leukemia was the first human cancer for which risk was unequivocally demonstrated to increase with dose of ionizing radiation. This increase was shown among atomic bomb survivors and among a series of British patients treated by X-ray for ankylosing spondylitis, a painful form of arthritis of the spine. The thyroid gland was the first solid cancer site for which radiation dose was strongly implicated as a risk factor, based on the screening of atomic bomb survivors and of patients treated by radiation for diseases of the head and neck. Since then, radiation dose responses to gamma-ray and X-ray radiation in the under-4-Sv range have been established for all solid cancers as a group and for cancers of the breast, thyroid, stomach, colon, liver, lung, bladder, and ovary in particular. The evidence for a radiation-related risk is also persuasive for cancers of the oral cavity as a group and specifically for the salivary glands. Risk associations also have been described for esophageal cancer, nonmelanoma skin cancer (particularly basal cell skin cancer), and malignant and benign tumours of the brain and central nervous system (including glioma, meningioma, and schwannoma). Internal exposure to radon and its decay products is associated with an increased risk of lung cancer, while bone sarcoma risk is associated with radiation dose from ingested or injected radium.

There is a general tendency, with some exceptions, for dose-specific risk of radiation-related cancer to be inversely associated with exposure age. Both radiation-related and baseline cancer risk tend to increase with age following exposure, but the age-related increase for radiation-related risk may not be as steep as that for baseline cancer risk. A first full-term pregnancy at a relatively young age (e.g., before age 25 years) is protective against radiation-related breast cancer risk, even if the radiation exposure preceded the first full-term pregnancy. The interaction between smoking and radiation exposure as lung cancer risk factors is less clear. For example, some evidence indicates that radon-related excess risk (as distinguished from smoking-related risk) among uranium miners is higher for smokers than for nonsmokers. Other evidence indicates that radiation-related excess risk among atomic bomb survivors exposed to gamma radiation did not differ by smoking level.