Electron-spin resonance
In contrast to nuclear magnetic resonance, electron-spin resonance (ESR) is observed only in a restricted class of substances. These substances include transition elements—that is, elements with unfilled inner electronic shells—free radicals (molecular fragments), metals, and various paramagnetic defects and impurity centres. Another difference from NMR is a far greater sensitivity to environment; whereas the resonance frequencies in NMR in general are shifted from those of bare nuclei by very small amounts because of the influence of conduction electrons, chemical shifts, spin-spin couplings, and so on, the ESR frequencies in bulk matter may differ greatly from those of free spins or free atoms because the unfilled subshells of the atom are easily distorted by the interactions occurring in bulk matter.
A model that has been highly successful for the description of magnetism in bulk matter is based on the effect of the crystal lattice on the magnetic centre under study. The effect of the crystal field, particularly if it has little symmetry, is to reduce the magnetism caused by orbital motion. To some extent the orbital magnetism is preserved against ligand fields of low symmetry by the coupling of the spin and orbital momenta.
The total energy of the magnetic centre consists of two parts: (1) the energy of coupling between magnetic moments due to the electrons and the external magnetic field, and (2) the electrostatic energy between the electronic shells and the ligand field, which is independent of the applied magnetic field. The energy levels give rise to a spectrum with many different resonance frequencies, the fine structure.
Another important feature of electron-spin resonance results from the interaction of the electronic magnetization with the nuclear moment, causing each component of the fine-structure resonance spectrum to be split further into many so-called hyperfine components. If the electronic magnetization is spread over more than one atom, it can interact with more than one nucleus; and, in the expression for hyperfine levels, the hyperfine coupling of the electrons with a single nucleus must be replaced by the sum of the coupling with all the nuclei. Each hyperfine line is then split further by the additional couplings into what is known as superhyperfine structure.
The key problem in electron-spin resonance is, on one hand, to construct a mathematical description of the total energy of the interaction in the ligand field plus the applied magnetic field and, on the other hand, to deduce the parameters of the theoretical expression from an analysis of the observed spectra. The comparison of the two sets of values permits a detailed quantitative test of the microscopic description of the structure of matter in the compounds studied by ESR.
The transition elements include the iron group, the lanthanoid (or rare earth) group, the palladium group, the platinum group, and the actinoid group. The resonance behaviour of compounds of these elements is conditioned by the relative strength of the ligand field and the spin-orbit coupling. In the lanthanoids, for instance, the ligand field is weak and unable to uncouple the spin and orbital momentum, leaving the latter largely unreduced. In the iron group, on the other hand, the components of the ligand field are, as a rule, stronger than the spin-orbit coupling, and the orbital momentum is strongly reduced.
The advent of ESR has marked a new understanding of these substances. Thus, it was formerly thought that in the iron group and the lanthanoid group ions of the crystal were bound together solely by their electrostatic attraction, the magnetic electrons being completely localized on the transition ion. The discovery of superhyperfine structure demonstrated conclusively that some covalent bonding to neighbouring ions exists.
With few exceptions, the magnetic moments of imperfections such as vacancies at lattice sites and impurity centres in crystals that give rise to an observable ESR have the characteristics of a free electronic spin. In the study of these centres, hyperfine and superhyperfine structure provide a mapping of the electronic magnetization and make it possible to test the correctness of the model chosen to describe the defect.
The most widely studied by resonance are those of phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony, substituted in the semiconductors silicon and germanium. Studies of hyperfine and superhyperfine structure give detailed information on the status of these impurities.
Free radicals are ideally suited for study by electron-spin resonance. They can be studied in a concentrated form or in very dilute solutions. The sensitivity of ESR is particularly important for the study of very short-lived species. The ESR of free radicals in solutions gives an extreme wealth of hyperfine lines because the magnetic electron is not localized on one nucleus but interacts with several nuclei of the radical.
Combined electron-spin and nuclear magnetic resonances
When a species exhibits more than one resonance, it may be advantageous to study two or more of them simultaneously. In general, this study involves driving one resonance while detecting the other. Thus, an apparatus with two oscillating magnetic fields is employed, one for the driver and the other for the detector. Driving an NMR and detecting its effect on an ESR is known as ENDOR (electron-nuclear double resonance), whereas driving an ESR to increase a nuclear magnetization, observed by NMR, is called DNP (dynamic nuclear polarization).
Electron-nuclear double resonance is mainly used in making accurate measurements of hyperfine and superhyperfine splittings for detailed mapping of electron-spin densities. In the ENDOR method, driving an NMR resonance changes the populations of at least one of the energy levels between which an ESR transition is observable, and thus the strong ESR signal is measurably modified. ENDOR thus combines the sensitivity of ESR with the resolution of NMR. The dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) method known as solid effect is widely used for making polarized proton targets for nuclear and high-energy physics.