Roasters
Each of the above processes can be carried out in specialized roasters. The types most commonly in use are fluidized-bed, multiple-hearth, flash, chlorinator, rotary kiln, and sintering machine (or blast roaster).
Fluidized-bed roasters (see ) have found wide acceptance because of their high capacity and efficiency. They can be used for oxidizing, sulfatizing, and volatilizing roasts. The roaster is a refractory-lined, upright cylindrical steel shell with a grate bottom through which air is blown in sufficient volume to keep fine, solid feed particles in suspension and give excellent gas-solid contact. The ore feed can be introduced dry or as a water suspension through a downpipe into the turbulent layer zone of the roaster. Discharge of the roasted calcines is through a side overflow pipe.
Multiple-hearth roasters also have found wide acceptance in that they can be used for oxidizing, sulfatizing, chloridizing, volatilizing, reducing, and calcining processes. The roaster is a refractory-lined, vertical cylindrical steel shell in which are placed a number of superimposed refractory hearths. A slowly rotating central shaft turns rabble arms on each hearth both to stir the roasting material and to push it into drop holes leading to the hearth below. Feed material is fed to the top hearth, and, as it follows a zig-zag path across the hearths and downward, it meets the rising gas stream that effects the roasting. The calcines are discharged from the bottom hearth.
Flash roasters are used only for oxidizing roasts and are, in effect, multiple-hearth roasters with the central hearths removed. This design came with the realization that much of the oxidizing takes place as the particles are actually dropping from hearth to hearth.
Chlorinators are used for roasting oxides to chlorides. They are tall, circular steel shells lined with refractory brick to prevent chlorine attack on the steel. The top of each chlorinator has a sealed hopper for periodic feed charging, and gaseous or liquid chlorine is added at the bottom of the unit. Heat is supplied by electrical resistance through the shell wall and by any exothermic reaction that may occur. The product depends on the chloridizing reaction taking place, with magnesium dichloride, for example, forming as a watery liquid and titanium tetrachloride coming off as a gas.
Calcination of carbonates to oxides is done in a horizontal rotary kiln, which is a mild-steel circular shell lined with refractory material and having a length 10 to 12 times the diameter. Sloping slightly downward from feed to discharge ends, the kiln slowly rotates while fuel-fired burners located inside the kiln provide the required heat.
A sintering machine, or blast roaster, can conduct oxidizing or reducing roasts and then agglomerate the roasted calcines, or it can be used for agglomeration alone. (Agglomeration is the fusing of fine feed material into larger chunks that can be fed into a blast furnace or retort, eliminating the problem of losing the fine feed in the hot air blast.) The oxidizing or reducing reaction is exothermic, but in order for agglomeration alone to be conducted, a fuel such as fine coke must be mixed with the charge.
The sintering machine consists of an endless belt of moving metal pallets with grate bottoms on which a fine feed charge is spread and passed under a burner. As the charge ignites, the pallet passes over a suction wind box, so that air being drawn through the feed layer causes combustion (i.e., oxidation) of sulfur or carbon to continue from top to bottom. Because the temperature is high and there is no agitation of the feed, a partial fusion takes place on the surface of the particles, leaving them adhering together in the form of a porous, cellular clinker known as sinter.
Smelting
Smelting is a process that liberates the metallic element from its compound as an impure molten metal and separates it from the waste rock part of the charge, which becomes a molten slag. There are two types of smelting, reduction smelting and matte smelting. In reduction smelting, both the metallic charge fed into the smelter and the slag formed from the process are oxides; in matte smelting, the slag is an oxide while the metallic charge is a combination of metallic sulfides that melt and recombine to give a homogeneous metallic sulfide called matte.
Reduction smelting
Many types of furnace are used for reduction smelting. The blast furnace is universally used in the reduction of such compounds as iron oxide, zinc oxide, and lead oxide, though there are great differences between the furnace designs used in each case. Iron, found naturally in the oxide ores hematite and magnetite, is smelted in a tall, circular, sealed blast furnace (see ). A sintered or pelletized feed consisting of coke (for fuel), limestone (as a flux for slag making), and iron oxide is charged into the top of the furnace through a double bell or rotating chute, and heated air is blown in through nozzles, or tuyeres, close to the furnace bottom. In the ensuing combustion reaction, oxygen in the air combines with carbon in the coke, generating enough heat to melt the furnace charge and forming carbon monoxide, which, in turn, reduces the iron oxide to metallic iron. The furnace is sealed to prevent the escape of carbon monoxide gas, which is recovered and burned as fuel to heat the tuyere air. In the hearth at the furnace bottom, molten slag and iron collect in two layers, the lighter slag on top. Both are periodically drawn off, with the slag being discarded and the iron going on to be refined into steel.
The zinc blast furnace also is a sealed furnace, with a charge of sintered zinc oxide and preheated coke added through a sealed charging bell. The furnace is rectangular, with a shorter shaft than the iron blast furnace. A blast of hot air through the tuyeres provides oxygen to burn the coke for heat and to supply carbon monoxide reducing gas. The reduced zinc passes out of the furnace as vapour, and this is drawn off to a spray bath of molten lead and condensed to liquid zinc metal. Slag and any lead present in the charge are tapped as liquids from the furnace hearth. (For an illustration of a zinc-lead blast furnace, see ).
The lead blast furnace is similar in size and shape to the zinc blast furnace, but it is not a sealed furnace, and it does not use preheated tuyere air. A charge of lead oxide sinter, coke, and flux is poured into the open top of the furnace, and the strong reducing atmosphere in the furnace shaft reduces the oxide to metal. Liquid lead and slag collect in two layers in the furnace hearth, with the lead in the bottom layer and slag above.
Two newer processes for the direct reduction of unroasted lead sulfide concentrate are the QSL (Queneau-Schuhmann-Lurgi) and the KIVCET (a Russian acronym for “flash-cyclone-oxygen-electric smelting”). In the QSL reactor a submerged injection of shielded oxygen oxidizes lead sulfide to lead metal, while the KIVCET is a type of flash-smelting furnace in which fine, dried lead sulfide concentrate combines with oxygen in a shaft to give lead metal.
Matte smelting
The primary purpose of matte smelting is to melt and recombine the charge into a homogeneous matte of metallic copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron sulfides and to give an iron and silicon oxide slag. It is done in many types of furnace on both roasted or unroasted sulfide feed material.
The reverberatory furnace is essentially a rectangular refractory-brick box equipped with end-wall burners to provide heat for melting. The furnace is relatively quiet, and it does not blow out much fine feed (which is added through roof ports) with the exhaust gases. The matte is tapped periodically from a centre taphole, while the slag runs off continuously at the furnace flue end. Oxygen lances inserted through the roof, or oxygen added through the burners, can increase smelting capacity considerably.
Electric furnaces are similar to reverberatory furnaces except for the method of heating—in this case a row of electrodes projecting through the roof into the slag layer on the furnace hearth and heating by resistance.
Flash smelting is a relatively recent development that has found worldwide acceptance. It is an autogenous process, using the oxidation of sulfides in an unroasted charge to supply the heat required to reach reaction temperatures and melt the feed material. The most widely used furnace has a vertical reaction shaft at one end of a long, low settling hearth and a vertical gas-uptake shaft at the other end. Fine, unroasted feed is blown into the reaction shaft along with preheated air; these react instantaneously, and liquid droplets fall onto the settling hearth, separating into layers of slag and matte. The off-gas, high in sulfur dioxide, is ideal for sulfur-recovery processes.
The second stage of matte smelting is converting the sulfides to metal. For many years the standard vessel for this operation has been the Peirce-Smith converter. This is a rotatable, refractory-lined, horizontal steel drum with an opening at the centre of the top for charging and discharging and a row of tuyeres across the back through which air, oxygen-enriched air, or oxygen can be blown into the liquid bath. Molten matte from the smelting furnace is poured into the converter, after which gas is blown through the tuyeres to oxidize first iron and then sulfur. The sulfur goes off as sulfur dioxide gas and the iron as iron oxide slag, leaving semipure metal. Considerable heat is generated by this exothermic reaction, keeping the bath liquid and maintaining the required reaction temperature.
More recent processes take advantage of exothermic heat evolution to accomplish both the smelting of unroasted sulfides and the conversion of matte in one combined operation. These are the Noranda, TBRC (top-blown rotary converter), and Mitsubishi processes. The Noranda reactor is a horizontal cylindrical furnace with a depression in the centre where the metal collects and a raised hearth at one end where the slag is run off. Pelletized unroasted sulfide concentrate is poured into the molten bath at one end, where tuyeres inject an air-oxygen mixture. This causes an intense mixing action that aids the melting, smelting, and oxidation steps, which follow one another in sequence, by taking advantage of the exothermic heat. The TBRC also is cylindrical in shape but is inclined at 17° to the horizontal, has an open mouth at the high end for charging and pouring, and revolves at 5 to 40 rotations per minute. A lance inserted through the mouth can give any combination of oxygen, air, or natural gas to impinge on the molten bath and create the conditions required for smelting and oxidizing. The combination of surface blowing and bath rotation improves the performance of the converter. The Mitsubishi process is a continuous smelting-converting operation that uses three stationary furnaces in series. The first furnace is for smelting, with oxygen lances and a fuel-fired burner inserted through the roof. Slag and matte flow from here to a slag-cleaning furnace (heated by electric arc), and high-grade matte flows from this to the converting furnace, where oxygen-enriched air is blown into the bath through roof lances. Exothermic heat produced here is sufficient to keep the bath up to reaction temperature.
Electrolytic smelting
Smelting is also carried out by the electrolytic dissociation, at high temperatures, of a liquid metallic chloride compound (as is done with magnesium) or of a metallic oxide powder dissolved in molten electrolyte (as is done with aluminum). In each case, electric current is passed through the bath to dissociate the metallic compound; the metal released collects at the cathode, while a gas is given off at the anode.
The magnesium smelting cell consists of a steel pot that serves as the cathode; two rows of graphite electrodes are inserted through a refractory cover as anodes. The electrolyte is a mixture of chlorides, with magnesium chloride making up 20 percent, and the cell is maintained at 700 °C (1,300 °F). The passage of current breaks down the magnesium chloride into chlorine gas and magnesium metal, which go to the anode and cathode, respectively.
In the Hall-Héroult smelting process, a nearly pure aluminum oxide compound called alumina is dissolved at 950 °C (1,750 °F) in a molten electrolyte composed of aluminum, sodium, and fluorine; this is electrolyzed to give aluminum metal at the cathode and oxygen gas at the anode. The smelting cell is a carbon-lined steel box, which acts as the cathode, and a row of graphite electrodes inserted into the bath serves as anodes.
