- Key People:
- Friedrich Johann Karl Becke
- Related Topics:
- marble
- slate
- metamorphism
- gneiss
- schist
In general, the changes in mineral assemblage and mineral composition that occur during burial and heating are referred to as prograde metamorphism, whereas those that occur during uplift and cooling of a rock represent retrograde metamorphism. If thermodynamic equilibrium were always maintained, one might expect all the reactions that occur during prograde metamorphism to be reversed during subsequent uplift of the rocks and reexposure at Earth’s surface; in this case, metamorphic rocks would never be seen in outcrop. However, two factors mitigate against complete retrogression of metamorphic rocks during their return to Earth’s surface. First is the efficient removal of the water and carbon dioxide released during prograde devolatilization reactions by upward migration of the fluid along grain boundaries and through fractures. Because almost all the water released during heating by reactions—such as when chlorite (Fe9Al6Si5O20(OH)16) reacts with quartz (4SiO2) to yield garnet (3Fe3Al2Si3O12) and water (8H2O)—is removed from the site of reaction, the reaction cannot be reversed during cooling unless water is subsequently added to the rock. Thus, garnet can be preserved at Earth’s surface even though it is thermodynamically unstable at such low temperatures and pressures. The second reason that metamorphic reactions do not typically operate in reverse during cooling is that reaction rates are increased by rising temperatures. During cooling, reaction kinetics become sluggish, and metastable mineral assemblages and compositions can be preserved well outside their normal stability fields. Thus, prograde reactions are generally more efficient than retrograde reactions, and metamorphic assemblages indicative of even extremely high temperatures or pressures or both are found exposed throughout the world.
It is common, however, to find at least some signs of retrogression in most metamorphic rocks. For example, garnets are often rimmed by small amounts of chlorite and quartz, indicating that limited quantities of water were available for the reverse of the reaction given above to proceed during cooling. Retrograde features such as these reaction rims can be mapped to yield information on pathways of fluid migration through the rocks during uplift and cooling. In other rocks, such as high-temperature gneisses, mineral compositions often reflect temperatures too low to be in equilibrium with the preserved mineral assemblage. In these samples, it is clear that certain exchange reactions operated in a retrograde sense even when the net-transfer reactions were frozen in during prograde metamorphism.
Textural features
The fabric of a metamorphic rock results from the combined effects of mineral reactions and deformation throughout the metamorphic event and the subsequent return of the rock to the terrestrial surface. The study of metamorphic fabrics in outcrop and under the microscope has become a highly specialized subject aimed at revealing the nature and direction of the forces acting during dynamic processes within Earth. Much of this work is an outgrowth of a classic investigation conducted in 1930 by the Austrian geologist Bruno Sander, coupled with more recent experimental work on the pressure-temperature stabilities of metamorphic minerals and their responses to deformation.
Observations show that pressure is only rarely hydrostatic (equal in all directions) at any point within Earth’s crust. In real cases, consequently, anisotropic stresses operate that may lead to flow or fracture of materials. Such occurrences produce certain characteristic fabrics or structures in metamorphic rocks that may be observed at the scale of the orientation of small crystals in a rock or as a pattern of folds in a mountain range. One of the principal characteristics of most metamorphic rocks is that the arrangement of crystals is not isotropic, or random, but that there is a strong preferred orientation related to the direction of stress components of pressure. Such preferred orientation of crystals and mineral grains is perhaps the most striking difference between metamorphic rocks and other rock types.